THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

SANTA  BARBARA 

COLLEGE 

PRESENTED  BY 


William  E.  Roberti 


Id 


ART  EDUCATION  IN 
THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 
OF    THE     UNITED    STATES 


i'. 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/arteducationinpuOOhaneiala 


DESIGN    FOR   STAINED   GLASS   WINDOW 


KATHRYN    SCHMIDT 

PUPIL    OF 

THE    PHILADELPHIA    SCHOOL    OF    DESIGN    FOR    WOMEN 


ART  EDUCATION  IN 
THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 
OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


A  SYMPOSIUM  PREPARED  UNDER  THE 
AUSPICES  OF  THE  AMERICAN  COM- 
MITTEE  OF  THE  THIRD  INTERNATIONAL 
CONGRESS  FOR  THE  DEVELOPMENT 
OF  DRAWING  AND  ART  TEACHING 
><^<  LONDON.    AUGUST.    1908  ><vc 


EDITED     BY 


JAMES    PARTON    HANEY 


AMERICAN    ART    ANNUAL 

(INCORPORATED) 

546  FIFTH  AVENUE,  NEW  YORK,  N.  Y. 

1908 


Edition  limited  to  one  thousand  copies,  of  which   this 
book  is  number*//... 


Copyright,    1908,    by 
JAMES     P.     HANEY 


Published  for   the   American   Committee  of   thi; 

Third    International    Congress    for    the    Develop- 

men"    of     Drawing     and    Art     Teaching     by    the 

AMERICAN  ART   ANNUAL,    (Inc.), 

546  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York,   N.    Y. 


M3 


68107 


UNTVEKSITY  OP  CALIFORNIA 
qAKTA  BARBARA  COLLEGE  LIBRARY 


CONTENTS. 

PAGE. 

Committees    5 

List  of  Illustrations ii 

Preface    15 

The  Development  of  Art  Education  in  the  Public  Schools. 

James  Parton  Hanev.  21 

The  Philosophy  of  Elementary  Art  Education Colin    A.    Scott.  79 

Child  Study  in  Relation  to  Elementary  Art  Education Earl  Barnes,  ioi 

Organization  of  Art  Teaching  in  the  Elementary  School.^. 

Julia  Cecili.\  Cremins.  133 

Art  Education  in  the  Elementary  Schools Cheshire  Lowton   Boone.  165 

Art  Education  in  the  High  Schools Ch.srles    M.   Carter.  201 

Art  Education  in  the  Evenintj  Schools James  Frederick  Hopkins.  243 

Art  Education  in  Normal  Schools Harriet  Cecil  Magee.  271 

Art  Education  in  the  College-^ William    Woodward.  295 

Normal  Art  Schools Jeannette    Buckley.  325 

Art  Societies  Conijected  with  the  Public  Schools.     Frederic  Lynden  Burnham.  353 

Educational  Work  of  the  .\rt  Museums Florence    N.   Levy.  375 

Extent  and  Cost  of  Art  Instruction  in  the  Public  Schools. 

George  Henry  Martin.  421 

Biographical   Notes  of  Contributors 429 


THIRD  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  FOR  THE 

ADVANCEMENT  OF  DRAWING  AND  ART  TEACHING, 

LONDON,  AUGUST  3  TO  8,  1908 

AMERICAN   OFFICIAL   COMMITTEE. 

James   Hall,    Chairman, 

Director,  Art  Department,  Ethical  Culture  School,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Charles  M.  Carter,  William  Woodward, 

Director,  Art  Education,  Denver,  Col.  Professor  of  Art,  Newcomb  College, 

Tulane  University,  New  Orleans,  La. 

ADVISORY  COMMITTEE. 

Solon  P.  Davis,  Chairman  of  the  Co-operating  Committee. 

Supervisor    of    Drawing,    Hartford,    Conn. 

Henry  T.  Bailey,  Secretary,  Cheshire  L.  Boone,  Treasurer, 

Editor    "School   Arts   Book,"   North    Scitu-  Director    of    Drawing    and    Manual    Train- 

ate,   Mass.  ing,  Montclair,  N.  J. 

J.  Frederick  Hopkins, 
Mrs.  Matilda  E.  Riley,  Director,  School  of  Art  and  Design,  Mary- 

Supervisor   of   Drawing,    St.   Louis,    Mo.  j^^d   Institute,    Baltimore,    Md. 

,,.  o  Leslie  W.   Miller, 

Wilhelmina   Seegmiller,  t,  .      .  ,         ,         .  ,     .         T,,  - 

c  ■  r-r-v        •         Tj-  i-Tj  Principal,   School   of  Industrial  Art,   Phila- 

bupervisor  of  Drawing,   Indianapolis,   Ind.  ,  ,  ,  .      U 

delphia,   Pa. 

Mary  C.  Wheeler,  Walter  S.  Perry. 

Principal,  Wheeler  School  for  Girls,  Provi-  Director,   Department  of   Fine   Arts,   Pratt 

dence    R.  I.  Institute,  Borough  of  Brooklyn,  New  York, 

N.   Y. 

John  S.  Ankeney,  Jr.,  Walter  Sargent, 

Director,  Department  of  Fine  Arts,  Director  of  Drawing  and  Manual  Training, 

University  of  Missouri,  Columbia,   Mo.  Boston,  Mass. 

James  P.  Haney,  Editor  for  the  Committee. 
Director,  Art  and  Manual  Training,   Boroughs  of  Manhattan  and  The  Bronx,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

PRESS  COMMITTEE. 

Florence  N.   Levy,   Chairman, 
Editor,    "American    Art   Annual,"    New    York,    N.    Y. 
Henry  T.   Bailey,  North   Scituate,   Mass.  Charles   M.    Carter,   Denver,   Col. 


HONORARY  PRESIDENT, 

Hon.    Elmes    Ellsworth    Brown, 

United   States   Commissioner   of   Education,    Washington,    D.   C. 

HONORARY  VICE  PRESIDENTS. 


Herbert  Adams,  N.  A., 

President,  National  Sculpture  Society,  New 
York,  N.  Y. 

Dr.  Felix  Adler, 

President,  Ethical  Culture  School,  New 
York,   N.   Y. 

John  W.  Alexander,  N.  A., 
Painter,  New  York,   N.   Y. 

George  H.   Baktlett, 

Principal,  Massachusetts  Normal  Art 
School,   Boston,   Mass. 

John  W.  Beatty, 

Director  of  Fine  Arts,  Carne.^ie  Institute, 
Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Mrs.   Emmons    Blaine, 

Patron  of  Art,  Chicago,  111. 

Edwin  Howland  Blashfield,  N.  A., 
Painter,   New  York,   N.  Y. 

Stratton  D.  Brooks, 

Superintendent   of   Schools,   Boston,    Mas.s. 

Mrs.  Stephenson  Burke, 

President,  Cleveland  School  of  Art,  Cleve- 
land, Ohio. 

Dr.  Nicholas   Murray    Butler, 

President,  Columbia  University,  New  Y(irk, 
N.  Y. 

Sir  Caspar  Purdon  Clarke, 

Director,  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art, 
New  York,  N.  Y. ;  Member  of  the  Faculty 
of  Fine  Arts,  Columbia  University,  New 
York. 

Edwin   Gilbert  Cooley, 

Suiierinttndent    of    Schools,    Chicago,    111. 

Hon.  William  J.  Coombs, 

President,  The  Municipal  Art  Society  ot 
New  York,  New  York,  N.  V. 

Dr.  Lawrence  J.  Corbly, 

President,  Marshall  College,  Huntington, 
W.   Va. 


Kenyon  Cox,  N.  A., 

Painter,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

John  Cotton  Dana, 

Librarian,  Newark  Free  Public  Library, 
Newark,   N.   J. 

Robert  W.  de  Forest, 

Secretary,  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art, 
New    York,    N.    Y. 

Frederick  Dielman,  N.  A., 

President,  National  Academy  of  Design, 
New  "iork,  N.  Y. 

Dr.  Andrew   S.   Draper, 

Commissioner  of  Education  of  the  State  of 
New  York,  Albany,  N.   Y. 

Dr.  Charles  W.  Eliot, 

President,  Harvard  University,  Cambridge, 
Mass. 

John  J.  Ennekinc, 

Painter,  Boston,  Mass. 

Dr.  Arthur  Fairbanks, 

Director,  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston,. 
Mass. 

Dr.  W.  H.  p.  Faunce, 

President,  Brown  L^niversity,  Providence, 
R.   I. 

Ernest  F.  Fenollosa, 

Author  and  Lecturer  on  Fine  Arts,  New 
York,  N.  Y. 

Daniel  Chester  French,  N.  A., 

Sculptor,   New   York,   N.   Y. 
William    M.   R.   French, 

Director,  Art  Institute  of  Chicago,  Chicago, 

111. 

William  H.   Goodyear, 

Curator  of  Fine  Arts,  Museum  of  the 
Brooklyn  Institute  of  Arts  and  Sciences, 
Borough  of  Brooklyn,  New  York,  N.   Y. 

Alfred  D.  F.  Hamlin, 

Professor  of  Architecture,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity, New  York,  N.  Y. 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


HONORARY    VICE    PRESIDENTS— (ConHuMsd). 


Thomas  Hastings,  F.  A.  I.  A., 

President,    Architectural    League    of    New 
York,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Dr.  Walter  B.  Hill, 

Chancellor,  University  of  Georgia,  Athens, 
Ga. 

Hon.   Charles  L).  Hine, 

Secretary,  State  Board  of  Education,  Hart- 
ford,  Conn. 

Hon.  Halsey  C.  Ives, 

Director,  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  St.  Louis, 
Mo. 

Dr.    David   Starr  Jordan, 

President,     Leland     Stanford    Junior     Uni- 
versity.   Stanford   University,    Cal. 

John  LaFarge,  N.  A., 

Artist,   New   York,   N.   Y. 

Dr.    Flavel    S.    Luther, 

President,  Trinity  College,  Hartford,  Conn. 

Dk.    James    MacAllister, 

President,     Dre.xel    Institute,     Philadelphia, 
Pa. 


Ho.\.    George    H.    .Martin, 

Secretary,    Massachusetts    State    Board 
Education,   Boston,   Mass. 


of 


Dr.  William  H.  Maxwell, 

Superintendent     of     Public     Schools,     New 
York.   N.    Y. 

Charles  F.  McKim,  F.   A.  I.  A., 

.Architect.  New  York,   \.   Y. 
Hon.   J.  Pikrpoxt  Morga.v, 

President,     Metropolitan    Museum    of    Art, 

New    York.    N.    Y. 
Hon.  William  O.  Nelson. 

Editor.    "Kansas    City    .Star,"    Kansas    City, 

Mo. 
T.  C.  NicoLL.  N.  A.. 

President,   .American    Water   Color    Society. 

New  York.   N.   Y. 

George  B.  Post.  F.   A.   I.    A., 
.Arcliitect.  New  York.  N.   Y. 

Frederic  B.  Pratt, 

Director.   Pratt   Institute,   lirooklyn,   N.   Y. 

Htkrert    Putnam. 

Librarian.  Congressional  Library,  Washing- 
ton.   D.    C. 


Mrs.  Gustav  Radeke, 

.Acting    Director,    Rhode    Island    School    of 
Design,  Providence,  R.  I. 

Dr.  Denman   W.   Ross, 

Professor   of    Design,    Harvard   University, 
Cambridge,  Mass. 

Dr.  Jacob  Gould  Schurman, 

President,       Cornell      University,     Ithaca, 

N.  Y. 

Hon.  Theodore  C.  Search, 

President,      Pennsylvania      Museum      and 
School  of  Industrial  Art,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Hon.  T.   Guilford   Smith, 

Patron  of  Art,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

LoRAno    Taft, 

Sculptor,   Chicago,   111. 

Dr.  William   O.   Thompson, 

President,    Ohio    State    University.    Colum- 
bus. Ohio. 

Alexander  T.  Van  Laer,  A.  N.  A., 

Painter  and  Lecturer,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

C.  Howard  Walker,  F.  A.  I.  A., 

Director,    Department  of  Design,   School  of 
Museum  of  Fine   Arts,   Boston,   Mass. 

Henry  Walters, 

Patron   of   Art,    Baltimore,    3ild. 

H.   Langford  Warren,  F.   .A.  I.  A., 

Professor    of    Architecture,    Harvard    Uni- 
versity, Cambridge,  Mass. 

Dr.  Benjamin  Ide  Wheeler, 

President,   University  of  California,   Berke- 
ley, Cal. 

Dr.   Marshall  C.   Wilson, 

President,    State    Normal   College,   Jackson- 
ville,  Ala. 

Charles  Herbert.  Woodbury,  N.  A., 

Painter,   Boston,   Mass. 
Dr.    Calvin    M.    Woodward, 

Dean,    Washington    University,    St.    Louis, 

Mo. 

Ellsworth   Woodward, 

Director  of  Art  Department,  Newcomb  Col- 
lege, Tulane  University.  New  Orleans,  La. 

Charles  Zueblin, 

Professor,   University  of   Chicago,   Chicago. 
111. 


CO-OPERATING    COMMITTEE. 

Solon  P.  Davis,  Chairman, 

Supervisor  of  Drawing,  Hartford,  Coini. 


T.  WiNTHRop  Andrews, 

Supervisor  of  Drawing,  New  Britain,  Conn. 

Willis  B.    Anthony, 

Supervisor  oi  Drawing,  North  Adams, 
Mass. 

A.  May  AtLee, 

Supervisor  of  Drawing,  Washington,   D.  C. 

•D.  R.  Augsburg, 

Supervisor    of   Drawing,    Oakland,    Cal. 

W.  A.  Baldwin, 

Principal,    State    Normal    School,    Hyannis, 

Mass. 
Katherine  M.  Ball, 

Supervisor  of  Drawing,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

•George  H.  Bartlett, 

Principal,  Massachusetts  Normal  Art 
School,    Boston,    Mass. 

Ernest  A.   Batch  elder. 

Supervisor  of  Drawing,  Throop  Polyteclinic 
Institute,  Pasadena,   Cal. 

Charles  .X.   Bennett. 

Professor  of  Manual  Arts,  Bradley  Poly- 
technic Institute;  Editor,  "Manual  Train- 
ing Magazine,"   Peoria,   111. 

Nathaniel  L.  Berry, 

Supervisor  of  Drawing,  West  Newton,  Mass. 

•Charles  F.  Binns. 

Director.  New  York  State  School  of  Clay 
Working  and  Ceramics,   Alfred,   N.    Y. 

Mrs.  D.  T.  Bonar, 

Supervisor  of  Drawing,  Fort  Worth,  Tex. 

Frederic  L.   Burn  ham. 

State   Agent   for   the   Promotion   of   Manual 

Arts,   Cambridge,  Mass. 
Mrs.   Hannah  J.   Carter, 

Sunervisor  of   Drawing,  Chicago,    111. 
Alfred  Vance  Churchill, 

Director,    Department  of   Fine   Arts,   Smith 

College,    Northampton,    Mass. 
Arthur   B.    Clark, 

Supervisor    of    Drawing,    Leland    Stanford 

University,    California. 
Ida  Hoon  Clark 

Supervisor  of  Drawing,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 
Una  Clark. 

Sunervisor   of    Drawing,    Providence,    R.    i. 
Thellwell  R.  Cogceshall, 

Mechanical   Schools,  Girard   College.  Phila- 
delphia.  Pa. 
Eugene  C.   Colby, 

Department  of  Education,  Albany,  N.  Y. 
Frank  H.  Collins, 

Director  of  Drawing,   Boroughs  of  Queens 

and    Richmond,    New   York,    N.    Y. 
Harriet  D.  Condon, 

Sunervisor  of  Drawing,   South   Manchester, 

Conn. 
Randall  J.   Condon, 

Supervisor    of    Drawing.    Helena,    Mont. 


Richard  McLeod  Crawford, 

Supervisor  of  Drawing,  William  and  Mary 

College,    Williamsburg.    Va. 
Julia  Cecilia  Cremins, 

Assist,  to  Director  of  Drawing,  New   York, 

N.  Y. 
Lillian  S.  Cushman. 

Supervisor   of   Drawing,    Chicago,    HI. 

Fred  H.  Daniels,  _     . 

Supervisor  of  Drawing,   bpnngtield,   Mass. 

Frank  J.   Darrah, 

Supervisor  of  Drawing,  Worcester,  Mass. 

Mrs.  Frederick  .\.  Delano, 

Vice-President.   Public   School    Art    Society, 

Chicago,   111. 
Theodore  M.   Dillaway, 

Supervisor    of    Drawing,    Buffalo,    N.    Y. 

.Arthur  W.  Dow,  ' 

Director,     Dept.     of    Fine    Arts,     Teachers 
College.  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Samuel  T.   Dutton,  • 

Teachers  College,  New  \ork,  N.  Y. 

Mrs.    S.    F.    Easton, 

Supervisor   of    Drawing,    La    Crosse,    Wis. 

William   T.   Edwards, 

Supervisor  of   Drawing,   Maiden,   Mass. 

Florence  E.   Ellis, 

Director    of    Drawing,    Cleveland,    Ohio. 

Mary  C.   Field, 

Supervisor     of     Drawing,     State     Normal 

School,   Trenton,   N.   J. 
Elizabeth   E.   Garrabrant, 

Teacher  of  Drawing,  High  School,  Newark, 

N.   J. 

May    Gearhart, 

Supervisor   of   Drawing,    Los   Angeles,   Cal. 

Emelia  M.  Goldsworthy, 

Supervisor     of     Drawing,     State     Normal 

School,   Kalamazoo,   Mich. 
Florence  Goodenough, 

Sunervisor    of    Drawing,    Brattleboro,    Vt. 

Walter   S.    Goodnough, 

Director    of    Drawing.    Borough    of    Brook- 
lyn,  New  York,  N.   Y. 

William  C.  A.  Hammel, 

Supervisor  of   Drawing,   Greensboro,   N.   C. 

Della   M.  Hay, 

Suiiervisor   of    Drawing,    LUica,    N.    Y. 

Eleazer  B.  Homer,  A.  A.  I.  A., 

Architect,  Boston,  Mass. 
Edith    M.   Howes, 

Boston,  Mass. 
Emily  IIuger, 

Supervisor  of  Drawing,   New   Orleans,  La. 

Walter  T.  Kenyon, 

Supervisor     of     Drawing,     State     Normal 
School,   San  Jose,   Cal. 

E.  J.  Lake. 

Supervisor  of  Drawing,   University  of  Illi- 
nois,   Urbana,    III. 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


CO-OPERATING   COMMITTEE— (cor/un/ed). 


Florence  N.    Levy, 

Editor,     "American     Art     Annual,"     New 
York,  N.  Y. 

Harriet  C.  Magee, 

Supervisor    of    Drawing,    Chicago,    111. 


of     Drawing,     Grand     Rapids, 


Forrest  Mann, 
Supervisor 
Mich. 

William    A.    Mason, 

Supervisor    of    Drawing,    Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Mrs.  T.   Harris  Metcalf, 
Providence,    R.    I. 

Mrs.  Annie  Nathan   Meyer, 
New  York,  N.  Y. 

Walter  H.  Mohr, 

Teacher  of  ^Manual  Arts,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

George  E.   ^Morris, 

Supervisor  of  Drawing,  Waltham,  Mass. 

M.   W.    Murray, 

Director    of    Manual    Instruction,     Spring- 
field,  Mass. 

Emmet   E.    Myers, 

Supervisoi  of  Drawing,  Huntington,  W.  Va. 

Jessie   M.   Newell, 

Supervisor  of   Drawing,   Hartford,  Conn. 

Georgie   Leighton   Norton, 

Principal,   Cleveland   School   of   Art,  Cleve- 
land, Ohio. 

Fred   J.    Orr, 

Supervisor      of     Drawing,      State      Normal 
School,  Athens,  Ga. 

Jeannette  Palen, 

Supervisor  of  Drawing,   So.   Orange,   N.  J. 

Mrs.  Everett  W.  Pattison, 
St.    Louis,    Mo. 

Frank  Alvah  Parsons, 

Director,   Department  of  Normal   Art,  New- 
York  School  of  Art,  New  York,  N.   Y. 

Mary   A.   Pearson, 

Supervisor  of   Drawing,   No.   Adams,   Mass. 

John  P.   Pemberton, 

Supervisor  of   Drawing,    New   (Jrleans,    La. 

Louise  Pierce, 

Asst.    to   Director   of    Drawing,    New    York, 
N.  Y. 

Sophia  L.  Pitman, 

Teacher  of  Drawing,  Moses  Brown  School, 

Providence,   R.   I. 
Mrs.   .Aodie  C.   Pond, 

Supervisor  of  Drawing,   Racine,   Wis. 
Mrs.  GrsTAv  Radeke, 

Acting    Director,    Rhode    Island    School    of 

Design,    Providence,    R.   I. 
Asa   G.   Randall, 

Supervisor  of  Drawing,  Providence,  R.  I. 
Edna  A.   Rich, 

Supervisor  of   Drawing,  Santa  Barbara,  Cal. 
Miss  K.    L.   Riggs, 

SuTjervisor   of   Drawing,    New   Orleans,    La. 


E.   M.    Roberts, 

Supervisor  of  Drawing,  Minneapolis,  Mina. 

Elizabeth    G.    Rogers, 

Supervisor  of  Drawing,   New  Orleans,   La. 

Sara    L.    Rogers, 

Supervisor    of    Drawing,    Louisville,    Ky. 

Augustus  F.   Rose, 

Art  Teacher,  High  School,  Boston,  Mass. 

Emily  Sartain, 

Principal,    Philadelphia    School    of    Design 
for   Women,    Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Rhoda  E.   Selleck, 

Supervisor   of   Drawing,    Indianapolis,    Ind. 

Isabelle   Sewall, 

Supervisor  of   Drawing,  Natick,   Mass. 

Bertha  S.  Shepard, 

Supervisor   of   Drawing,    Derby,    Conn. 

Lucy  S.   Silke, 

Supervisor  of  Drawing,  Chicago,  111. 
Stella   Skinner, 

Supervisor      of      Drawing,      State      Normal 

School,  New  Paltz,  N.   Y. 
Mabel  B.   Soper, 

Supervisor  of  Drawing,  Wellesley,  Mass. 
Margaret    Sterling, 

Supervisor  of  Drawing,   Schenectady,  N.  Y> 
Eva  E.    Struble, 

Supervisor  of  Drawing,   Newark,   N.  J. 
Langdon  S.  Thompson, 

Supervisor  of  Drawing,  Jersey   City,   N.  J.. 
Mrs.  Helena  J.  Torrey, 

Supervisor   Drawing,    Grand   Rapids,    Mich, 
Mrs.   Mary  E.  Van  Wagonen, 

Supervisor   of    Drawing,    Pittsburg,    Pa. 
William    H.    Varnum, 

Supervisor    of    Drawing,    Millikin    Univer- 
sity,   Decatur,    111. 
William   H.  Vogel, 

Art  Supervisor,   Cincinnati.  Ohio 
C.  Howard  W>lker, 

Director,  Department  of  Design,   School  of 

the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston,   Mass. 
Mary   K.    Waring, 

Teacher    of    Drawing,    Montclair,    N.    J. 
Annette  J.  Warner, 

Teacher  of  Drawing,  State  Normal  School^ 

Fitchburg,    Mass. 
Irene  Weir, 

Director   of    Art,    High    School,    Brookline^ 

Mass. 
Almond  H.  Wentworth, 

Supervisor  of  Drawing,  New  Haven,  Conn. 
C.  Louise  Williams, 

Supervisor  of  Drawing,   Hartford.   Conn. 
Annie  M.  Wilson. 

Director  of  Drawing,   Washington.   D.   C. 
Ellsworth  Woodward, 

Director  of  Art  Department,     Newcomb  Col- 
lege, Tulane  University,  New  Orleans,  La. 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE. 

1.  Design  for  Stained  Glass  by  a  Pupil  of  the  School  of  Design  for  Women, 

Philadelphia,    Pa Frontispiece 

2.  Design  for  Poster  by  a  Pupil  of  the  School  of  Industrial  Art,  Philadel- 

phia,  Pa Colored  Insert 

3.  Illustration,  Senior  Class,  Teachers  College,  New  York,  N.  Y i& 

4.  Applied  Design,  Primary  Grades,  Montclair,  N.  J 25 

5.  Illustrative    Drawing — "The    Circus,"    Third   Year,   Elementary    Schools, 

New  York,   N.  Y 31 

6.  Tree  Tearing,  First  Year,  Elementary  Schools,  Cleveland,  Ohio 35 

7.  Illustrative  Drawing,  Second  Year,  Elementary  Schools,  Montclair,  N.  J..  39- 

8.  Object  and  Illustrative  Drawing — '"Hiawatha,"   Third   Year,  Elementary 

Schools,  New  York,  N.  Y 43 

9.  Illustrative    Drawing,    Second    and    Third    Years,    Elementary    Schools, 

Montclair,    N.    J 47 

10.  Sand  Table,  First  Year,  Elementary  Schools,  Montclair,  N.  J 51 

11.  Object    and    Illustrative    Drawing — "Transportation,"    Third   Year.    Ele- 

mentary Schools,  New  York,  N.  Y 57 

12.  Constructive  Work  and  Applied  Design,  Ungraded  Class,  Newark,  N.  J . .  6i 

13.  Object  Drawing,  Grammar  Grades,  Newton,  Mass 65 

14.  Brush  Work,  Montclair,  N.  J. ;   Composition,  St.   Louis.  Mo. — Interme- 

diate Grades    69 

15.  Applied  Design,  Sixth,  Seventh  and  Eighth  Years,  Elementary  Schools, 

New  York,  N.  Y 73 

16.  Folding  and  Sewing  "The  School  Reporter,"  Sixth  Year,  School  of  Edu- 

cation, University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  111 78 

17.  Applied  Design,  Elementary  Schools,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  and  Montclair,  N.  J.  83 

18.  Applied  Design,  Eighth  Year,  Elementary  Schools,  New  York,  N.  Y 87 

19.  Book  Binding,  Sixth,  Seventh  and  Eighth  Years,  School  of  Education, 

University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  111 91 

20.  Applied  Design,  Seventh  and  Eighth  Years,   Elementary  Schools,   New 

York,  N.  Y 95 

21.  Book  Binding,  Eighth  Year,  Elementary  Schools,  Chicago,  111 100 

22.  Candle  Shades,  Eighth  Year,  Elementary  Schools,  Cleveland,  Ohio 105 

23.  Decorated    Portfolios,   Seventh   and   Eighth  Years,   Elementarj^   Schools, 

New  York,  N.  Y 109 

24.  Decorated  Portfolios,  Eighth  Year,  Elementary  Schools,  New  York,  N.  Y.     113 


ERRATA 


The  plates  on  pages  249,  253,  270  and  291  show  work  done  by 
students  of  the  Rhode  Island  School  of  Design. 


12  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

PAGE. 

25.  Applied  Design,  Grammar  Grades,  Elementary  Schools,  Newark,  N.  J.  .. .  117 

26.  Surface  Patterns,  Eighth  Year,  Elementary  Schools,  Cleveland,  Ohio 121 

2y.     Designs    for    Stained    Wood,    Seventh    and    Eight    Years,    Elementary 

Schools,  New  York,  N.  Y 125 

28.  Applied  Design,  Sixth  Year,  Colored  School,  Indianapolis,  Ind 129 

29.  Communal  Exercise,  Eighth  Year,  Elementary  Schools,  New  York,  N.Y.  135 

30.  Applied  Design,  Raffia  Baskets,  Elementary  Schools,  Newark,  N.  J 139 

31.  Applied  Design,  Craft  Classes,  Elementary  Schools,  New  York,  N.  Y...  143 

32.  Applied  Design,  Craft  Classes,  Elementary  Schools,  New  York,  N.  Y...  147 

33.  Class    in    Costume    Design,    Washington    Irving    High     School,     New 

York,   N.  Y 151 

34.  Sketches    from    the    Pose,    Manual    Training   High    School,    Indianapo- 

lis,   Ind 155 

.35.     Sketch  Class,  Washington  Irving  High  School,  New  York,  N.  Y 159 

36.  Landscape  Composition,  High  School,  Cleveland,  Ohio 164 

37.  Study  of  Pictorial  Composition,  Washington  Irving  High  School,  New 

York.  N.  Y 169 

38.  Japanese  Screens,  High  School,  Springfield,  Mass 173 

39.  Applied  Design,  Shortridge  High  School,  Indianapolis,  Ind 177 

40.  Drawing  Room,  Technical  High  School,  Springfield,  Mass 181 

41.  Architectural    Drawing,    Fourth    Year,    Technical    High    School,    Spring-  • 

field,    Mass 185 

42.  Jewelry,   High   School.   Wellesley.   Mass 189 

43.  ^Nletal  Work.  Second  Year,  Technical  High  School,  Providence,  R.  I....  193 

44.  Pottery,  High  School,  St.  Louis,  Mo 197 

45.  Tooled  Leather,  First  Year,  High  School.  West  Newton,  Mass 203 

46.  Jewelry:   Fobs,  First  Year;  Buckles,  Fourth  Year;  High  School.  West 

Newton,    Mass 207 

47.  Tooled  Leather,  High  School,  St.  Louis,  Mo 211 

48.  Jewelry.  Fourth  Year,  High  School,  West  Newton,  Mass 215 

49.  Books  Bound  in  Tooled  Leather,  High  School,  St.  Louis,  Mo 219 

50.  Joinery   and   Carving,   Central   Manual   Training  High   School,   Philadel- 

phia.   Pa 223 

51.  Raffia    Baskets,    First    Year     (Girls),    Technical   High   School,    Spring- 

field.   ;\Iass 227 

52.  Stencil    Work,    First    Year     (Girls),    Technical    High    School,    Spring- 

field,   Mass 231 

53.  Art  Room,  North  Side  High  School,  Denver,  Colo 235 

54.  Applied  Design,  High  School,  St.  Louis,  Mo 239 

55.  Constructive   Design,   Central    Manual   Training  High   School,    Philadel- 

phia,   Pa 245 

50.     Jewelry,  Second  Year,   rechnical   High  School.   Providence,  R.  1 249 

57.  Metal  Work,  Second  Year,  Technical  High  School,  Providence,  R.  I....  253 

58.  Leather  Work,  High  School,  Wellesley,  Mass 257 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS.  I3 

PAGE. 

59-     Metal  Work.  High  School,  St.  Louis,  Mo 261 

60.  Stencil  Work  and  Embroidery,  High  School,  St.  Louis,  Mo 262 

61.  Pottery,  High   School,  Springfield,   Mass 265 

62.  Metal  Work,  Second  Year,  Technical  High  School,  Providence,  R.  1 270 

63.  Construction  and   Applied  Design,   North   East  Manual   Training   High 

School,   Philadelphia,   Pa 275 

64.  .\pplied  Design,  High  School,  St.  Louis,  Mo 279 

65.  Leather  Belts,  First  to  Fourth  Years,  High  School,  West  Newton,  Mass.  280 

66.  Joinery  and  Applied  Design,  High  School,  Newark,  N.  J 283 

67.  Pierced  Leather  and  Metal,  High  School,  Springfield,  Mass 287 

68.  Jewelry,  Second  Year,  Technical  High  School,  Providence,  R.  1 291 

69.  Stencil  Work,  Junior  Class,  Teachers  College,  New  York.  N.  Y 297 

70.  Metal  Work,  Ohio  Mechanics'  Institute,  Cincinnati,  Ohio 298 

71.  Line  Composition,  Junior  Class,  Teachers   College,  New  York,  N.  Y 301 

72.  Embroidery,  Newcomb  College,  New  Orleans,  La 305 

73.  Metal  Work,  Ohio  Mechanics'  Institute,  Cincinnati,  Ohio 306 

74.  China  Painting,  Ohio  Mechanics'  Institute,  Cincinnati,  Ohio 309 

75.  Pose  Drawing,  Newcomb  College,  New  Orleans,  La 313 

76.  Pottery  Designs,  School  of  Industrial  Arts,  Trenton,  N.  J 314 

77.  Memory  Sketches,  Normal  Department,  Art  Institute,  Chicago,  111 317 

78.  Applied  Design,  School  of  Industrial  Arts,  Trenton,  N.  J 320 

79.  Pottery,  Newcomb  College,  New  Orleans,  La 324 

80.  Elementary  Design,  Junior  Class,  Teachers  College,  New  York,  N.  Y.  .. .  327 

81.  Textile  Design,  Normal  Class,  Pratt  Institute,  New  York   (Borough  of 

Brooklyn),  N.  Y 331 

82.  Surface  Patterns,  Wall  Paper  and  Mosaic,  School  of  Design  for  Women, 

Philadelphia,    Pa 332 

83.  Landscape  Composition,  Pratt  Institute,  New  York  (Borough  of  Brook- 

lyn),  N.   Y 335 

84.  Illustration  by  Normal  Student,  Art  Institute,  Chicago,  111 339 

85.  Leather    and    Metal    Work,    Normal    Department,    Art    Institute,    Chi- 

cago,  111 343 

86.  Jewel  Box  and  Pottery,  School  of  Industrial  Art,  Philadelphia.  Pa 347 

87.  Interior   Decoration,    Pratt    In.stitute,    New    York    (Borough   of    Brook- 

lyn), N.   Y 352 

88.  Mural   Decoration  for  the  John  Sartain  School,  by  a  Student  of  the  School 

of  Design  for  Women,  Philadelphia,  Pa 357 

89.  Applied  Design,  Normal  Class,  Pratt  Institute,  New  York  (Borough  of 

Brooklyn),    N.    Y 361 

90.  Flower  Composition,  Junior  Class,  Teachers  College,  New  York,  N.  Y ... .  365 

91.  Composition,  Normal  Department,  Art  Institute,  Chicago,  111 369 

92.  Hand  Built   Pottery  and   Inlaid   Clays,   Senior  Class,  Teachers  College, 

New  York,  N.  Y 374 

93.  Costume  Design,  School  of  Design  for  Women,  Philadelphia,  Pa 379 


14  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

PAGE. 

94.  Applied  Design,  Normal  Class,  Pratt  Institute,  New  York   (Borough  of 

Brooklyn),    N.   Y 383 

95.  Landscape  Composition  in  Two  Values,  Teachers  College,   New   York, 

N.  Y 387 

96.  Studies  from  Textiles,  Normal  Course.  Pratt  Institute,  New  York  (Bor- 

ough of  Brookh'n),  N.  Y 391 

97.  Pane's  for  the  Altar  of  the  Church  of  the  Annunciation.   Philadelphia, 

Painted  by  Students  of  the   School   of  Design   for  Women,   Phila- 
delphia,  Pa 395 

98.  Applied  Design,  Western  State  Normal  School,  Kalamazoo,  Mich 399 

99.  Mural  Decoration  for  the  John  Sartain  School,  by  a  Student  of  the  School 

of  Design  for  Women,  Philadelphia,  Pa 403 

100.     Pottery.  Western  State  Normal  School,  Kalamazoo,  Mich 407 

loi.     Daily  Talk  to  Public  School  Pupils,  Museum  of  Art.  Toledo.  Ohio..     ..  411 

102.  Modeling,  Massachusetts  Normal  Art  School,  Boston,  Mass 415 

103.  Modeling  Room,  School  of  Industrial  Art,  Philadelphia,  Pa 416 

104.  Application   of    Butterfly    Motif,    Normal    Class,    School   of   Design    for 

Women.   Philadelphia,   Pa 420 

103.     Application    of   Butterfly   Motif,   Normal    Class.    School   of   Design   for 

Women,    Philadelphia,    Pa 423 

106.  Application    of   Butterfly   Motif,    Normal     Class,    School   of  Design    for 

Women,   Philadelphia,   Pa 424 

107.  Pottery.  Newcomb  College,  New'  Orleans,  La 428 


PRIZE   DESIGN   FOK   POSTED 

By  Genrude   Grace    Hark 

A    PUPIL    OF    THE 

Pennsylvania    Museum   and  School  of  Industrial  Art 
PHILADELPHIA.    PA 


PREFACE. 

'  I  "O  understand  American  schools  and  American  school  work  one  must 
■  understand  Americans.  This  is  no  easy  matter,  for  in  a  sense"^ 
Americans  do  not  understand  themselves.  They  believe  themselves  to 
be  a  people  intensely  practical :  they  are,  in  fact,  a  nation  of  idealists,  who 
in  all  their  institutions  "cling  to  faith  beyond  the  forms  of  faith,''  striv- 
ing to  translate  into  practice  ideas  of  freedom  and  democracy,  whether 
conditions  permit  or  no.  This  is  particularly  true  of  their  educational 
system.  Possessed  of  the  belief  that  the  State  owes  every  child  free 
schooling,  and  of  the  conviction  that  democracy's  surest  bulwark  is  a 
highly  educated  people,  they  have  erected  a  mighty  fabric  whose  warp 
and  woof  bind  all  the  land  and  whose  ornaments  stand  in  the  high 
schools,  which  raise  their  bulk  above  the  rooftops  of  every  country  town. 
In  this  school  system  one  may  find  the  merits  and  shortcomings  in- 
herent in  any  scheme  which  would  strive  to  give  an  education  to  a  multi- 
tude born  under  the  law  "free  and  equal,''  but  destined  to  find  that  free- 
dom and  equality  tempered  and  conditioned  by  a  thousand  restrictions 
of  the  social  world  and  a  thousand  more  of  heritage  and  mental  capacity. 
To  the  observer  who  remembers  that  this  essence  of  idealism  permeates 
American  character,  much  will  be  revealed  when  he  comes  to  study 
the  teacher  in  the  schools.  So  mindful,  he  will  be  prepared  to  compre- 
hend that  attitude  otherwise  puzzling  in  its  apparent  willingness  to  accept 
the  superficial  and  in  its  continued  readiness  to  turn  to  fresh  experiment. 
With  eye  grown  sympathetic  he  will  see  this  superficiality  in  large  measure 
the  result  of  an  effort  to  make  each  pupil  realize  his  individuality,  and  to 
bring  home  to  him  his  duty  to  express  himself  in  direct  and  personal 
fashion.     Experiment,  too,  he  will  see  as  a  constant  search  for  this  very 


i6  ART  EDUCATION  IN   THE   UNITED  STATES. 

self-expression  and  as  an   ever  cheerful  willingness  to  try   some  better 
way  to  reveal  to  the  worker  his  own  creative  power. 

Grown  of  just  such  mixed  motives — ideal  and  practical — there  has 
gradually  come  into  being  what  may  be  termed  an  American  system  of 
teaching  the  arts.  This  deals  with  the  work  in  drawing,  construction  and 
design,  and  with  the  elements  of  aesthetic  training  which  are  taught  in 
primary,  intermediate  and  high  schools.  With  this  system  of  teaching 
this  volume  is  concerned.  The  constructive  or  manual  work  is  treated 
incidentally,  but  an  eflfort  has  been  made  to  present  the  other  phases  of 
the  work  in  the  words  of  teachers  who  are  doing  it.  Thus  it  is  hoped 
to  make  plain  the  story  of  its  growth  and  the  spirit  of  its  teachings. 

As  a  volume,  this  symposium  represents  a  contribution  of  the  Amer- 
ican Committee  of  the  Third  International  Congress  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Drawing  and  Art  Teaching,  to  the  interests  of  the  meeting  to 
be  held  in  London  in  August,  1908.  This,  however,  is  but  one  expression 
of  its  purpose.  In  a  broader  sense,  it  is  a  contribution  by  the  members 
of  the  profession  in  America  to  the  literature  of  the  subject,  and  is  offered 
as  an  earnest  of  their  desire  to  aid  in  the  creation  of  a  professional  spirit 
which  is  willing  to  labor  in  unwonted  fields  to  advance  the  interests  of 
art  teaching.  The  separate  articles  will,  it  is  hoped,  not  only  make  plain 
to  strangers  the  nature  of  the  American  theory  and  practice,  but  will 
serve  to  present  to  the  thousands  of  art  teachers  throughout  the  United 
States  a  conspectus  of  the  field  in  which  they  are  at  work.  Such  a  view, 
it  is  believed,  cannot  but  lend  to  the  interests  of  the  arts  and,  through 
a  realization  of  the  extent  and  importance  of  the  field,  to  a  still  keener 
professional  pride  and  feeling  of  responsibility. 

The  book  has  still  another  and  an  important  duty  to  perform,  one 
indeed  which  served  as  a  first  cause  for  its  creation.  This  obligation  is 
to  explain  the  exhibition  contributed  to  the  London  Congress.  This  ex- 
planation, it  was  hoped,  could  have  been  made  in  detail  as  a  chapter  by 
James  Hall,  the  distinguished  chairman  of  the  American  Official 
Committee.      Untoward  circumstances  having  made  this  impossible,  it  is 


PREFACE.  17 

left  to  the  various  contributors  to  the  volume  to  make  plain  the  signifi- 
cance of  the  comix)site  showing  made  by  the  American  schools.  Those, 
therefore,  who  would  understand  the  meaning  and  the  relation  of  the  dif- 
ferent phases  of  the  work  throughout  the  grades,  must  read  these  in  the 
various  explanations  and  comments  here  offered.  For  those  who  will  not 
see  the  exhibition  at  the  Congress,  the  illustrations  of  the  text  must  serve. 
The  latter  have  been  made  numerous  and  as  representative  as  possible  of 
different  cities,  and  of  different  forms  of  practice.  For  two  reasons  the 
work  in  applied  design  has  particularly  been  emphasized ;  one  because 
examples  of  pencil  drawings  and  nature  work  in  mass,  reproduce  with 
great  loss  of  quality,  the  other  because  the  teaching  of  applied  design  has 
so  grown  in  importance  as  to  warrant  more  than  ordinary  attention.  In 
this  connection  cordial  thanks  are  due  and  are  given  to  those  who  have 
contributed  the  illustrations  which  are  shown. 

One  word  should  be  added  of  the  writers  of  the  separate  chapters. 
Busy  people  all,  they  have  put  aside  pressing  tasks  to  take  up  the  pen  in 
place  of  the  familiar  brush  or  crayon.  For  their  generous  support  the 
present  writer  is  deeply  grateful ;  without  it  the  book  had  been  impossible. 
An  attempt  to  make  plain  in  the  field  of  the  arts  something  of  the  force 
which  animates  their  teaching,  this  symposium  is,  in  a  way,  a  resultant  of 
the  thing  it  would  explain.  It  is  the  product  of  a  spirit  which  finds 
pleasure  in  service,  a  spirit  which  moves  the  many  to  work  together  that 
the  cause  of  the  arts  may  prosper. 

The  Editor. 

New  York,  June,  1908. 


f^?^^ 


ILLUSTRATION,    SEXKIK    CLASS^    TEACHERS    COLLEGE,     NEW    YORKj    N.     Y. 


ART  EDUCATION  IN 
THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 
OF    THE     UNITED    STATES 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  ART  EDUCATION   IN  THE 
PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 

By  James  Parton  Haney.  \ 

WERE  one  to  hang  in  exhibition  today  the  drawings  done  in  the 
school  rooms  of  fifty  years  ago,  the  yellowed  sheets  would  excite 
smiles  not  a  few.  There  is  a  fashion  in  drawing,  as  in  dress,  and  quaint 
as  seem  to  us  the  poke  bonnets  and  panniers  of  a  past  generation,  they  are 
scarcely  less  curious  than  the  artificial  copies  and  stiflF  geometric  figures 
made  by  the  wearers  of  farthingale  and  crinoline.  But  the  change  in 
the  case  of  drawing  is  more  than  a  mere  change  in  fashion.  It  is  a 
change  rather  in  point  of  view  toward  the  work,  the  results  to  be 
achieved,  and  the  aims  of  the  subject  as  part  of  the  public  school  cur- 
riculum. It  is  the  purpose  of  this  review  to  consider  the  more  important 
agencies  which  have  brought  this  change  about.' 

The  early  history  of  drawing,  like  the  early  history  of  other  school 
innovations,  offers  the  familiar  picture  of  a  small  and  scattered  group  of 
enthusiasts  on  the  one  hand,  and  an  apathetic  public  and  antagonistic 
school  faculty  on  the  other.  The  first  teachers  of  drawing  offered  their 
subject  at  a  time  when  both  school  and  community  differed  much  from 
the  present.  The  country  was  then  largely  in  the  hands  of  farmer  and 
business  man.  The  manufacturer  played  as  yet  a  minor  part  in  the  com- 
munity life.  The  apprenticeship  system  was  still  in  vogue,  and  the  indus- 
trial drawing  needed  by  the  worker  was  taught  him  at  his  bench.  The 
schools  were  few  and  small  and  the  school  term  short,  while  the  cur- 
riculum had  not  had  grafted  upon  it  the  several  subjects  which  a  later 
and  more  diversified  age  finds  necessary.  The  country,  then  strongly 
commercial,  saw  the  business  man's  interests  entrenched  in  the  schools. 
As  the  three  R's  were  necessary  to  good  clerical  work,  they  formed  the 
pillars  of  the  pedagogic  temple.      In  the  commercial  man's  ideas  of  a 

'Besides  the  references  made  in  the  text,  very  serious  obligation  is  due  for  many  of  the 
facts  touching  the  early  history  of  drawing,  to  the  important  compilation  of  documents  on  .Art 
and  Industry,  edited  by  Col.  I.  Edwards  Clarke,  of  the  Bureau  of  Education,  Washington, 
D.  C.     This  is  a  valuable  source  book  for  the   story  of  the  arts  in  .American  schools. 


22  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

good  clerk,  drawing  played  no  part;  it  was  not  necessary  to  be  able  to 
draw  or  to  design  if  one  were  to  keep  books  and  cast  accounts. 

Thus  the  subject  at  its  introduction  met  the  active  antagonism  of 
school  authorities,  who,  better  than  they  knew,  reflected  the  interests  of 
the  commercial  life  around  them.  What  drawing  did  appear  was  ex- 
pressed in  terms  of  culture  rather  than  of  use.  It  was  accepted  as  a 
means  of  refining  the  taste  and  of  giving,  particularly  to  young  ladies  in 
private  schools,  the  finishing  touch  of  art  to  an  education  incomplete 
without  a  few  lessons  upon  the  harp  and  a  few  others  in  sketching  in 
pencil  or  sepia.  The  earliest  approach  was  largely  through  the  copy,  and 
technical  skill  was  sought  through  the  reproduction  of  tame  little  pictures, 
filled  with  tame  little  ruins  and  dejected  mill-stones  leaning  one  on  the 
other,  with  a  few  conventional  spurts  of  grass  between. 

It  was  in  Massachusetts,  a  State  always  friendly  to  the  development 
of  experiments  of  promise,  that  we  find  in  1821  a  public  school  master 
with  both  prescience  and  enthusiasm,  advocating  insistently  that  drawing 
play  a  daily  part  in  the  work  of  the  school  child.  This  was  William  Bent- 
ley  Fowle,  who  had  been  a  member  of  the  school  committee,  but  was  sud- 
denly drawn,  through  the  illness  of  the  head  master  of  one  of  the  public 
schools,  into  the  latter's  position.' 

Mr.  Fowle  adopted  the  monitorial  or  Lancasterian  system,  in  which 
the  older  pupils  became  assistants  to  the  master,  and  it  is  of  interest  to 
note  that  this  school  (which  developed  between  the  primary  and  higher 
grades)  has  since,  without  its  monitorial  features,  grown  into  the  great 
intermediate  school  system  to  be  found  throughout  the  country. 

Air.  Fowle  had  the  modern  schoolmaster's  love  of  blackboards,  then 
a  new  addition  to  the  school's  equipment.  He  introduced  twelve  of  them 
into  his  school,  and  made  the  drawing  of  maps  upon  these  boards  a  daily 
exercise.  Not  only  was  this  map  drawing  done,  but  linear  drawing, 
especially  of  geometrical  figures.  Opposition,  however,  soon  had  this 
innovator  by  the  heels,  and  the  jealousy  of  other  schoolmasters  suc- 
ceeded within  two  years'  time  in  relieving  him  of  his  office.  So  enthu- 
siastic a  teacher,  however,  would  not  down,  and  we  soon  hear  of  him 
again  as  head  of  a  private  female  school,  the  forerunner  of  the  modern 
girls'  high  school.  In  1827  he  translated  from  the  French  an  elementary 
work  on  the  free-hand  drawing  of  geometric  figures. 

-See   American  Journal    of   Education,    Henry  Barnard,   Editor,  Volume    lo,   June,    1861. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  ART  EDUCATION.  23 

Mr.  Fowle's  book  must  have  met  with  some  success,  as  a  second 
edition  soon  appears  containing  "The  Elements  of  Perspective  Drawing," 
while  in  1830  a  third  edition  was  required.  In  the  last  we  find  direc- 
tions for  drawing  various  geometrical  figures  by  the  aid  of  instruments. 
A  few  pages  of  arithmetic  and  geometry  are  added,  with  some  outline 
illustrations,  showing  orders  of  architecture,  problems  of  perspective  and 
geometrical  diagrams.  The  translator  notes  in  his  preface  that  this 
"Elementary  treatise  on  drawing,  adapted  to  the  use  of  common  schools, 
cannot  but  be  well  received  by  teachers  besides  the  professions  which 
make  the  art  of  drawing  their  particular  study.  Anatomists,  naturalists, 
mechanics,  travelers,  and  indeed  all  persons  of  taste  and  genius,  have 
need  of  it  to  enable  them  to  express  their  ideas  with  precision  and  make 
them  intelligible  to  ethers.  Notwithstanding  the  great  utility  of  this 
branch  of  education,  it  is  a  lamentable  tact  that  it  is  seldom  or  never 
taught  in  the  public  schools,  although  a  very  large  proportion  of  our 
children  have  no  other  education  than  these  schools  afiford.  Even  in  the 
private  schools,  where  drawing  is  taught,  it  is  too  generally  the  case  that 
no  regard  is  paid  to  the  geometrical  principles  on  which  the  art  depends. 
The  translator  appeals  to  experience  when  he  asserts  that  not  one  in  fifty 
of  those  who  have  gone  through  a  course  of  instruction  in  drawing  can 
do  more  than  copy  such  drawings  as  they  are  placed  before  them." 

It  was  in  1827 — the  year  in  which  Mr.  Fowle  issued  his  little 
treatise — that  the  Boston  public  schools  felt  more  sharply  the  entering 
wedge  of  the  new  subject.  In  that  year  it  was  introduced  into  the  Eng- 
lish high  school,  where  from  1827  to  1836  it  was  a  permitted  study  in 
the  upper  class  and  after  the  latter  year  an  obligatory  one,  "But  until 
1853,  as  there  was  no  special  teacher  of  drawing  it  received  little  or  no 
attention."'' 

But  a  short  time  after  these  tentative  moves  had  been  made,  we 
find  the  example  of  Continental  schools  being  held  up  before  American 
educators.  In  1838  Professor  Stow  was  called  upon  to  report  to  the  legis- 
lature of  Ohio  on  the  Prussian  schools,  and  in  his  statement  notes  "The 
universal  success  and  beneficial  results  with  which  the  arts  of  drawing 
and  designing,  vocal  and  instrumental  music  have  been  introduced  in  the 
schools."      Stovv's  report   in  its  entirety  is  to  be   found  in   the  October 

'Second  semi-annual  report  of   Superintendent  Pliilbrick,   Boston  Public   Schools,    1874. 


24  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

number  of  the  Connecticut  Common  School  Journal  for  1838.  This 
magazine,  edited  by  Henry  Barnard,  was  then  published  monthly/  Its 
far-sighted  editor,  later  to  become  distinguished  as  the  first  United  States 
Commissioner  of  Education,  was  at  that  very  time  delivering  many  ad- 
dresses throughout  the  country  on  the  subject  of  industrial  education. 
In  these  appeals  he  urged  that  drawing  be  taught  in  the  common  schools 
for  the  training  of  artisans. 

A  vear  after  Professor  Stow's  report,  the  house  of  Peabody  in  Boston 
issued  a  manual  on  the  method  of  teaching  linear  drawing.  This  had 
been  written  by  Mary  T.  Peabody,  a  public-spirited  lady  who  had  for 
two  years  previously  been  teaching  drawing  gratuitously  in  the  Franklin 
School  in  Boston.  Her  success  in  the  class  room  led  to  the  organization 
of  a  group  of  primary  teachers — nearly  one  hundred  in  all — before  whom 
she  developed,  her  method  of  approach  to  the  simple  outline  and  geometric 
figures  she  had  used  in  her  own  class  work.  Another  set  of  drawing 
copies  was  in  1842  issued  as  an  aid  to  the  class  room  teacher.  This  was 
by  Josiah  Holbrook,  and  took  the  form  of  some  three  dozen  cards  which 
prescribed  an  approach  through  geometric  figures  to  the  outlines  of 
familiar  objects.  The  industrial  application  of  the  knowledge  thus  ac- 
quired seemed,  however,  in  the  words  of  Clarke,  "never  to  have  been 
apprehended  by  the  author." 

As  distinguished  from  what  may  be  considered  the  educational  point 
of  view  of  the  earlier  advocates,  we  find  the  work  of  Rembrandt  Peale, 
who,  as  a  leading  artist  of  Philadelphia,  was  interested  in  art  for  its  own 
sake.  A  true  enthusiast.  Peale  offered  his  services  in  1842  to  the  con- 
trollers of  the  public  schools  of  his  city  and  agreed  to  superintend  without 
charge  the  introduction  of  drawing  into  the  elementary  grades.  He  had 
already  for  two  years  served  as  drawing  teacher  in  the  high  school  at 
a  nominal  salary,  that  he  might  prove  the  value  of  his  plan,  but  his  gener- 
ous ofl^er  was  received  in  a  critical  spirit  by  the  controllers,  whose  idea  of 
drawing  was  either  that  of  the  fashionable  boarding  school  or  of  the 
engineer.  He  was  finally  permitted  to  introduce  the  subject  into  the  ele- 
mentary schools.  l)ut  the  opposition  he  met  was  so  persistent  and  annoying 
that  after  a  few  months  he  gave  up  in  despair.  The  work  he  inaugurated 
in  the  high  school  was,  however,  continued  for  many  years  along  the  lines 
he  suggested. 

In    1845  the  house  of  P.iddle  in   Philadelphia    published    under  the 

M'uhlislicd  from  1838  to  1842  under  the  directioti  of  the  Board  of  Commissioners  of  the 
Cfimnion    scliools. 


AI'l'LltU     UtSK.N,     I'klMAKV     GKAUKS,  MUX'IXLAIK,    N.    J. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  ART  EDUCATION.  27 

title  of  "Graphics"  a  drawing-book  by  Peale  in  which  he  explained  his 
system  in  detail.  Two  points  form  his  major  recommendations.  First: 
that  the  pupil  copy  patterns  and  later  draw  from  nature,  and  second : 
that  he  learn  free-hand  drawing  before  attempting  the  use  of  instruments. 
This  hand-book  was  used  in  the  schools  of  Philadelphia  for  years  after 
its  introduction. 

Other  cities  were  now  beginning  to  realize  the  necessity  for  some 
form  of  drawing  in  the  grades.  In  most  cases  it  is  in  the  high  school  that 
the  subject  first  appears,  generally  as  training  in  the  making  of  geo- 
metrical figures  and  highly  conventional  ornaments.  By  1848  Baltimore 
had  a  well  organized  course  of  this  description  under  the  direction  of 
William  Minifie,  an  author  of  various  text-books,  some  of  which  are  in 
use  to  the  present  day.  Among  the  manuals  he  published  was  one  issued 
as  a  hand-book  on  drawing.  This  found  a  considerable  audience,  and  in 
1852  was  introduced  into  the  department  of  art  of  the  Government  School 
of  Design  of  Great  Britain.  It  is  therefore  not  unreasonable  to  suppose 
that  Walter  Smith,  who  was  later  to  become  the  director  of  drawing  in 
Boston,  had  himself  used  this  text-book  while  attending  the  government 
art  school  of  Marlborough  House  (later  South  Kensington)  and  had 
been  trained  in  the  very  system  taught  by  the  Baltimore  teacher  with 
such  success.'  But  the  Nemesis  which  pursued  Fowle  and  Peale  failed 
not  to  overtake  Minifie.  After  two  years  in  the  high  school  he  was  dis- 
missed and  his  systematic  training  was  abandoned  for  the  older  flat, 
pictorial  copy  with  its  ruins  and  its  dejected  mill-stones. 

The  city  of  Cleveland,  Ohio,  in  1849  introduced  drawing  as  a  regular 
exercise  into  the  schools.  In  the  higher  grades  this  was  taught  by  Miss 
Crosby,  an  art  teacher,  and  in  the  primary  schools  by  the  grade  instruc- 
tors. In  Miss  Crosby's  brief  term  of  office  we  have  an  early  illustration 
of  a  conviction  often  held  by  school  boards,  that  a  few  months'  contact 
with  a  highly  trained  teacher  of  drawing  will  enable  teachers  of  the  grades 
so  far  to  absorb  her  knowledge,  temperament  and  skill,  that  her  guidance 
may  be  dispensed  with.  Fallacy  though  this  is,  it  appealed  to  the  Cleve- 
land school  men,  and  the  very  excellence  of  the  earliest  drawing  was  used 
as  argument  to  prove  the  special  teacher's  services  no  longer  needed. 

It  was  the  expectation  that  the  class  teachers  would  themselves  keep 
up  the  drawing  unaided,  and  indeed  they  did  make  strong  efforts  to  meet 

'Clarke,   "Art  and  Industry,"  Part  I,  page  31. 


28  ART  EDUCATION  LV  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

this  wish."  Many  took  private  lessons  under  Brainerd,  a  student  of 
science,  whose  interest  in  the  subject  was  so  keen  that  for  several  months 
he  visited  the  schools  without  compensation  and  supervised  the  class- 
work  of  his  students.  Brainerd  was  not  an  advocate  of  the  geometric 
approach  to  his  subject,  nor  did  he  commend  the  formal  copying  which 
had  excited  the  indignation  of  Minifie.  His  course  was  to  familiarize  the 
pupils  as  soon  as  possible  with  the  principles  of  perspective  that  they  might 
sketch  natural  objects  with  freedom  and  accuracy.  At  the  request  of  the 
School  Board  he  issued  a  series  of  lessons  which  is  referred  to  in  the 
Cleveland  School  Report  of  1857  as  having  then  run  through  two  editions. 
After  the  first  month  of  his  voluntary  service  in  the  schools,  he  was  em- 
loyed  by  the  Board  and  was  for  some  seven  years  in  charge  of  the  draw- 
ing, which  was  given  one  hour  a  week  in  the  upper  grades  ana  one-half 
that  time  in  the  lower  classes. 

THE   INTERNATIONAL   EXHIfJITION   OF    185I. 

The  year  of  185 1  saw  a  "World's  Fair"  at  Hyde  Park,  London. 
This,  the  first  of  that  series  of  international  exhibitions  which  have  played 
so  large  a  part  in  the  education  of  the  civilized  world,  had  a  profound 
effect  upon  the  teaching  of  drawing  both  in  England  and  in  America, 
For  years  before  this,  the  English  artist,  Benjamin  Robert  Haydon,  had, 
through  addresses  and  memorials,  advocated  the  teaching  of  art  through 
public  classes.  "His  object  was  not  only  to  refine  the  arts,  but  to  promote 
industry,  encourage  trade,  and  extend  the  knowledge  of  all  classes.  He 
wished  to  bring  the  nation  to  regard  art  with  more  serious  interest,  and 
to  lift  ideal  art  out  of  the  darkness  into  which  the  Reformation  had  thrust 
it,  and  the  hesitation  of  Reynolds,  coupled  with  the  apathy  and  ignorance 
of  our  nobility,  kept  it  jammed  down,  and  he  saw  further  than  his  con- 
temporaries."' 

It  is  not  possible  here  to  trace  Haydon's  repeated  efforts  to  interest 
the  government  in  art  instruction  for  the  masses,  but  were  such  efforts 
followed  they  would  be  found  to  lead  in  each  case  to  disappointment. 
The  great  fair,  however,  oft'ered  an  argument  far  stronger  than  any  of 
those  before  adduced.      In  the  halls  of  the  exhibition  buildings  the  Eng- 

"Freese,  "Early  History  of  the  Cleveland  Public  Schools,"  published  by  the  Board  of 
r.ducation,   Cleveland,   Ohio,    1876. 

•Haydon,    F.   W.,   "A    Mtmoir   of   Benjamin   R.  Haydon,"   London,   1876.   \'ol.   I,  page  469. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  ART  EDUCATION.  29 

Hsh  people  were  suddenly  and  painfully  brought  to  realize  that  their 
artisans  lacked  much  in  skill,  taste  and  artistic  training  when  compared 
with  the  workers  on  the  Continent.  Fortunately,  the  English  people  had, 
in  their  Prince  Consort,  one  wise  to  take  advantage  of  the  mortification 
and  concern  caused  by  the  exhibition.  At  his  instance  the  Government 
School  of  Design  was  reorganized,  and  under  the  name  of  South  Kensing- 
ton soon  influenced  through  its  branches  the  whole  of  England. 

The  origin  of  this  School  of  Design  dates  back  to  the  Parlia- 
mentary recommendation  for  its  establishment  in  1835.  It  opened  in 
[837.  In  1841  branch  schools  extended  its  influence  to  the  manufac- 
turing districts,  the  state  giving  annual  grants  for  the  purpose  of  pay- 
ing teachers  and  purchasing  equipments.  These  grants  increased  until 
the  annual  appropriation,  fifteen  years  after  the  school's  establishment, 
amounted  to  $75,000,  of  which  the  branches  in  Manchester,  Birmingham, 
Leeds  and  other  cities  absorbed  one-half.  The  school,  however,  failed  to 
meet  the  expectations  of  the  founders,  and  rumors  of  dissatisfaction  be- 
came rife  even  before  the  Hyde  Park  Fair.  A  Parliamentary  Commission 
of  Inquiry  was  appointed  in  1849,  which  recommended  reorganization 
just  after  the  international  exhibition  opened.  The  top-heavy  counsel 
which  had  attempted  to  nm  the  institution  was  thereupon  abolished  and 
a  "Department  of  Practical  Art"  was  constituted,  with  Mr.  Cole  as 
superintendent  and  the  designer  Redgrave  as  "art  adviser."  The  wise 
advice  of  the  Prince  Consort  was  taken  in  all  of  these  matters^  and  we 
can  detect  his  voice  in  the  speech  to  Parliament  made  this  year  by  \'ic- 
toria,  who  states  that :  "The  advancement  of  the  fine  arts  and  of  practical 
science  will  be  readily  recognized  by  you  as  worthy  the  attention  of  a 
great  and  enlightened  nation.  I  have  directed  that  a  comprehensive 
scheme  shall  be  laid  before  you,  having  in  view  the  promotion  of  these 
objects  toward  which  I  invite  your  aid  and  co-operation." 

Under  the  stimulus  from  the  throne  a  rapid  extension  of  the  South 
Kensington  schools  was  undertaken ;  a  science  division  was  added,  and 
the  Parliamentary  grants  were  greatly  increased,  so  that  twenty  years 
later  the  annual  appropriation  was  over  one  million  and  a  half  dollars.  One 
of  the  first  moves  of  the  new  school  was  to  encourage  the  training  of  teach- 
ers for  the  elementary  schools.  In  1857  these  teachers  had  their  salaries 
increased  $25.00  a  year,  provided  they  passed  an  examination  in  draw- 
ing, and  taught  the  subject  satisfactorily  in  the  grades.     In  the  same  year 


30  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

the  central  art  training  schools  moved  from  Marlborough  House  to 
South  Kensington,  so  that  hereafter  the  latter  name  is  identified  with  this 
determined  effort  on  the  part  of  the  British  Government  to  foster  the 
aesthetic  talents  of  its  people.' 

These  important  moves  in  the  English  school  world  were  destined, 
in  the  not  distant  future,  to  have  a  considerable  effect  upon  teaching  in 
the  United  States,  for  it  is  to  South  Kensington  that  the  State  of  Massa- 
chusetts is  soon  to  turn  to  secure  a  supervisor  familiar  with  the  scheme 
of  training  which  the  English  people  had  devised  to  offset  the  shortcom- 
ings revealed  by  the  Hyde  Park  exhibition.  Various  Americans  had  also 
read  the  lesson,  and  in  1857  there  appeared  in  Barnard's  "American 
Journal  of  Education"  a  series  of  articles  by  M.  A.  Dwight  on  "Art  as  an 
Important  Branch  of  Education."  In  these  discussions  obvious  morals 
are  drawn  from  the  late  experience  of  the  English  people. 

Some  three  years  later  Massachusetts  recognized  drawing  as  a  per- 
missive study,  the  subject  appearing  for  the  first  time  in  the  thirty-eighth 
chapter  of  the  General  Statutes,  published  in  i860.  Says  the  report: 
"Algebra,  vocal  music,  drawing,  physiolog}'  and  hygiene  shall  be  taught 
by  lectures  or  otherwise,  in  all  public  schools  in  which  the  school  com- 
mittee deem  it  expedient."  A  permissive  statute  of  this  description  was 
soon  found,  however,  to  have  all  the  weakness  of  a  law  which  does  not 
provide  for  its  enforcement,  so  that  nine  years  later,  in  Chapter  80  of 
the  Laws  of  "69,  the  State  Board  of  Education  is  directed  to  plan  a 
course  of  free  instruction  for  all  cities  having  more  than  5,000  inhab- 
itants. In  the  year  following,  the  permissive  statute  was  made  mandatory 
by  a  requirement  that  "every  city  or  town  having  more  than  10,000  inhab- 
itants shall  annually  make  provision  for  giving  free  instruction  in  indus- 
trial or  mechanical  drawing  to  persons  over  fifteen  years  of  age,  either  in 
day  or  evening  schools,  under  the  direction  of  the  school  committee." 

This  Act  was  approved  May  17th,  1870.  In  the  thirty-fifth  annual 
report,  the  same  year,  is  found  an  analysis  of  the  reasons  which  led  Eng- 
land to  establish  her  national  training  school,  and  with  this  there  is  a 
recommendation  that  the  State  authorize  the  establishment  of  free  tech- 
nical schools  for  instruction  in  branches  common  to  the  leading  indus- 
tries.     Xot,  however,  until  thirty-five  years  later  did  this  suggestion  of 

^Tlie  notes  of  the  South  Kensington  School  are  taken  from  the  history  of  the  Science 
and    Art    Department    in    the    Thirteenth    Annual    Report. 


II.LI.STKATIVE     URAW ING,     "THE     CIRCUS,       THIRD    YEAR,    ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS, 

NEW   YORK,  N.   Y. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  ART  EDUCATION.  35 

Governor  Claflin  and  his  associates  take  definite  form  in  the  creation  of 
the  Massachusetts  Industrial  Commission. 

The  nine  years  between  the  first  permissive  statute  in  Massachu- 
setts and  the  definite  requirement  that  later  followed,  would  doubtless 
have  been  shorter  had  not  the  country  meanwhile  experienced  the  agony 
and  turmoil  of  a  great  Civil  War.  Many  phases  of  education  were  inter- 
rupted and  changed  by  this  struggle,  from  which  the  troubled  people 
emerged  into  w^hat  was,  in  more  senses  than  one,  a  new  commercial  era. 
The  years  following  the  war  saw  the  rapid  development  of  a  thousand  in- 
dustries, saw  huge  cities  gather  to  themselves  the  best  of  the  blood 
raised  on  the  farm,  and  the  old  time  processes  of  manufacture  and  the 
waning  apprenticeship  system  disappear  before  improved  machinery  and 
the  division  of  labor.  The  school  system  had  of  necessity  to  be  reshaped 
in  many  ways  to  meet  not  only  the  new  urban  and  industrial  conditions, 
but  those  other  requirements  which  a  more  scientific  study  of  teaching 
was  fast  developing. 

DRAWING   FROM    1870   TO    1 893. 

The  movement  which  led  to  the  Massachusetts  requirement  in  re- 
gard to  drawing  gathered  force  in  the  middle  sixties.  There  is  no  refer- 
ence to  the  subject  in  the  Report  of  the  State  Board  for  1868,  but  among 
the  extracts  from  the  reports  of  various  town  superintendents  through- 
out the  State  are  those  of  five  superintendents  who  note  the  claims  of 
drawing,  and  in  two  or  three  cases  urge  it  strongly.  Three  years  later, 
in  the  Report  of  the  State  Board  for  1871,  there  are  extracts  referring  to 
the  new  study  from  no  less  than  forty-five  towns  in  the  State,  an  increase 
due  to  the  mandatorv-  provisions  of  the  new  law.  Many  of  the  super- 
intendents at  first  advocated  the  subject  of  drawing  as  an  aid  in  acquir- 
ing the  art  of  penmanship,  but  as  they  came  to  appreciate  the  value  of 
the  work  they  ceased  to  look  to  the  three  R's  to  bolster  it  in  the  cur- 
riculum. 

There  was  now  introduced  into  Massachusetts  one  who  was  to  do 
much  in  stimulating  the  interest  throughout  the  State.  This  was  Walter 
Smith,  who,  largely  at  the  instance  of  Charles  C.  Perkins,  of  the  Boston 
schools,  was  brought  from  South  Kensington  to  initiate  and  perfect  a 
plan  for  introducing  drawing  throughout  the  city  and  State.     Mr.  Smith 


34  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

had  been  trained  in  South  Kensington,  and  was  at  this  time  art  master  in 
charge  of  the  branch  school  at  Leeds.  His  engagement  is  announced  in 
the  State  Report  for  1870,  which  also  authorizes  the  establishment  of 
three  evening  schools  for  drawing  in  the  city  of  Boston,  and  refers  to  the 
large  classes  recently  formed  in  Springfield,  Worcester,  Salem, 
Taunton,  and  a  number  of  other  Massachusetts  towns. 

Mr.  Smith  was  jointly  employed  by  the  city  and  the  State,  his  time 
being  equally  divided  between  his  two  employers.  As  director  of  the 
State  work  he  was  required  to  visit  th|S  cities  and  towns  which  were  by 
the  new  law  compelled  to  introduce  drawing.  He  lectured  at  teachers'  in- 
stitutes, visited  State  normal  schools  and  directed  the  Normal  Art  School 
when  this  was  organized.  Under  his  stimulus  there  were  prepared  a 
number  of  annual  exhibitions  of  drawings,  as  well  as  the  State  exhibi- 
tion shown  at  Philadelphia  during  the  Centennial.  Out  of  his  experience 
at  institutes  and  in  the  class  rooms  he  developed  a  series  of  exercises 
which  were  published,  and  widely  disseminated  throughout  the  Union. 

For  thirteen  years  Mr.  Smith  labored  in  the  field,  rendering  excel- 
lent service  to  the  cause  and  laying  a  broad  foundation  for  the  work  of 
his  successors.  As  time  progressed,  however,  certain  difficulties  of  tem- 
perament on  his  part,  and  jealousies  engendered  among  commercial  peo- 
ple interested  in  text-books  and  materials,  made  his  position  less  and  less 
tenable,  until  finally  he  felt  himself  obliged  to  withdraw  to  accept  the 
head  mastership  of  the  art  department  of  the  technical  college  at  Brad- 
ford, England. 

So  much  has  the  work  of  the  first  Massachusetts  director  influenced 
the  teaching  of  drawing  in  the  elementary  schools  that  some  consideration 
must  be  given  to  the  important  steps  taken  at  his  instance.  One  of  the 
most  significant  of  these  was  his  insistence  from  the  first,  that  the  class 
teacher  do  the  w^ork  in  drawing.  He  called  the  blackboard  the  chief 
•corner-stone  of  his  fabric,  and  began  his  teaching  in  1871  with  free-hand- 
drawing  made  from  ornaments  placed  upon  the  board.  This  work  he 
followed  very  soon  with  drawings  from  the  model,  and  in  1872  and  '73 
by  geometric  drawing  and  perspective  taught  from  the  board.  At  the 
end  of  the  latter  year  he  introduced  m  his  teachers'  normal  class,  work 
in  elementary  design. 

The  three  subjects  mentioned  comprised  the  Boston  course  of  study 
in  drawing,  and  class  teachers  in  large  numbers  were  induced  to  study 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  ART  EDUCATION.  37 

this  course  in  normal  classes  until  they  were  prepared  to  receive  a  teach- 
er's certificate.  In  an  address  to  grammar  school  teachers,  delivered  in 
1881,  Mr.  Smith  noted  that  out  of  the  one  thousand  and  forty-five  teach- 
ers employed  in  the  public  schools,  one  thousand  and  forty  had  taken 
normal  lessons  in  drawing,  and  had  received  certificates  of  proficiency. 

It  had  been  simple  enough  for  the  legislature  to  pass  a  require- 
ment that  the  cities  throughout  the  State  introduce  drawing  into  their 
elementary  schools,  but  it  was  quite  a  different  matter  to  secure  teachers 
for  the  new  subject.  The  normal  schools  at  that  time  gave  practically 
no  attention  to  drawing,  so  it  soon  became  evident  to  the  new  director 
that  a  school  for  the  training  of  teachers  was  absolutely  essential  to  the 
success  of  the  State  movement.  In  the  effort  to  develop  this  school  he 
was  strongly  supported  by  Mr.  Philbrick,  the  far-sighted  superintendent 
who  had  urged  his  acceptance  of  the  State  position.  In  1872  the  superin- 
tendent, on  his  individual  responsibility,  went  before  the  Legislative  Com- 
mittee on  Education,  with  a  bill  providing  for  the  establishment  of  a 
State  Normal  Art  School.  Mr.  Perkins  and  Secretary  White,  of  the 
State  Board  of  Education,  joined  in  urging  the  committee  to  report 
favorably.  After  a  year  of  agitation,  the  sum  of  $7,500  was  set  aside 
for  this  purpose.  The  school  was  opened  November  6th,  1873,  and  still 
stands,  the  one  State  school  in  the  country  devoted  entirely  to  normal  art 
training. 

Originally  established  in  a  private  house,  the  new  school  was  soon 
moved  to  larger  quarters,  and  again  removed  in  1881  to  the  "Deacon 
House"  in  Washington  street.  In  Mr.  Philbrick's  address  at  the  school 
commencement  in  '76  it  was  announced  that  within  a  year  the  school 
would  be  housed  "in  a  noble  and  appropriate  edifice  on  the  State  land 
at  the  comer  of  Boylston  and  Dartmouth  streets."  This  indeed  would 
have  been  a  most  advantageous  site,  as  it  was  within  a  stone's  throw  of 
the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts.  Mr.  Philbrick's  prophecy,  however,  was  not 
to  come  true,  and,  to  the  great  regret  of  the  friends  of  the  school,  the 
State  land  was  finally  devoted  to  the  use  of  the  Institute  of  Technology'. 

The  Normal  Art  School  opened  with  a  corps  of  three  professors  and 
five  instructors  and  with  one  hundred  and  thirty-three  students,  forty- 
seven  of  whom  were  men.  The  proportion  of  men  students  entering  rose 
for  a  year  or  two,  and  then  declined,  until  in  1880  there  were  one  hun- 
dred and  seventy-nine  women  students  and  sixty-six  men.     Three  years 


38  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

after  the  opening  of  the  school  its  work  was  shown  at  Philadelphia,  and 
did  much  to  stimulate  the  interest  in  drawing  in  elementary  education 
throughout  the  country. 

Before  turning  to  the  work  of  other  cities,  it  is  important  that  con- 
sideration be  here  given  to  that  interesting  figure  who  was  school  super- 
intendent of  Boston  and  who  so  aided  to  hold  up  Mr.  Smith's  hands  in 
the  early  years  of  his  directorship.  John  D.  Philbrick  was  a  brilliant  mem- 
ber of  that  distinguished  group  of  men  who  have  served  in  turn  as  super- 
intendent of  schools  for  Boston.  No  one,  in  the  light  of  modern  ideas 
of  school  teaching,  can  fail  to  be  impressed  with  the  insight  and  breadth 
of  view  made  plain  in  the  reports  which  came  from  his  hands  over  thirty 
years  ago.  He  was  elected  to  the  superintendency  of  the  Boston  schools 
in  December,  1856,  and  in  1874  presented  a  report  to  the  board  in  which 
he  reviewed  the  history  of  this  double  decade  of  the  Boston  schools.  In 
this  report  he  recites  the  history  and  present  condition  of  drawing  in  the 
schools.  To  Horace  Mann  he  gives  credit  for  the  introduction  in  1848 
of  drawing  as  one  of  the  grammar  school  studies,  and  goes  on  to  recite 
his  own  personal  efforts  to  obtain  in  1856,  as  a  loan  from  the  art  depart- 
ment of  the  English  Government,  a  small  collection  of  drawing  materials 
and  models. 

Later  in  the  report  he  refers  to  his  successful  efforts  in  1864  to  have 
drawing  made  obligatory  in  the  upper  grades.  The  drawing  books 
written  by  Mr.  Bartholomew,  a  high  school  teacher,  were  then  intro- 
duced into  the  grammar  classes.  He  speaks  in  high  terms  of  the  work  of 
the  director,  Walter  Smith,  and  notes  the  growth  of  the  drawing  staff, 
which  had  on  it  by  1874,  beside  the  director,  seven  local  supervisors  for 
the  grades  and  eleven  special  teachers  in  the  evening  schools.  He  refers 
also  to  the  annual  exhibition  of  drawing,  instituted  by  Walter  Smith,  and 
to  the  normal  drawing  classes  organized  by  the  director  and  held  on 
Wednesday  and  Saturday  afternoons  throughout  the  year.  Through  this 
and  other  reports  there  are  constant  reference  to  the  work  of  Charles 
C.  Perkins.  The  latter  was  chairman  of  the  committee  on  drawing,  and 
had  lent  his  every  aid  to  secure  funds  for  its  development. 

Other  cities  had  meanwhile  responded  to  the  lessons  of  the  exhibi- 
tions of  1 85 1  and  1867.  Drawing  was  introduced  into  Washington  in 
1868,  the  pupils  of  the  school  being  required  to  purchase  drawing  cards 
or  books.     The  work  was  shaped  after  the  model  offered  by  the  Boston 


ILLUSTRATIVE    DRAWING.    SECOND   YEAR,    ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS, 
MONTCLAIR,    N.    J. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  ART  EDUCATION.  41 

schools  and  the  Washington  committee,  in  the  course  of  its  deHberations, 
called  in  W  alter  Smith  as  adviser.  Their  next  step  was  to  secure  the 
services  of  a  supervisor.  Mrs.  Susan  E.  Fuller,  trained  in  the  New  York 
School  of  Design  for  Women,  was  appointed  to  the  position,  and  con- 
tinued to  serve  until  her  death  in  1907. 

In  1872  the  city  of  Cleveland  introduced  drawing  throughout  its 
school  system,  engaging  Frank  Aborn,  a  graduate  of  the  Technical 
School  at  Worcester,  as  director.  With  his  technical  training,  Mr.  Aborn 
gave  the  subject  a  practical  turn  which  drew  from  the  commissioners  of 
the  Centennial  Exhibition  special  mention  and  a  medal  for  the  excellence 
of  the  work  shown.  The  city  of  Columbus,  Ohio,  in  the  following  year, 
adopted  the  Boston  system  and  a  year  later  engaged  as  supervisor  Walter  S. 
Goodnough,  a  graduate  of  the  Bridgewater,  Massachusetts,  Normal  School. 
Mr,  Goodnough  instituted  a  Saturday  Normal  School  of  similar  nature  to 
the  classes  organized  for  teachers  in  Boston,  and  also  developed  an  even- 
ing school  of  the  arts. 

Affected  by  the  example  of  Massachusetts,  both  Maine  and  New 
York  soon  passed  acts  requiring  instruction  in  drawing  in  the  elementary 
schools.  The  act  of  Maine  was  permissive,  and  stated  that  "any  city  or 
town  may  annually  make  provision  for  giving  free  instruction  in  indus- 
trial or  mechanical  drawing  to  persons  over  fifteen  years  of  age,  either  in 
day  or  evening  schools,  under  the  direction  of  the  superintending  school 
conmiittee."  The  State  superintendent  of  schools,  Warren  Johnson,  fol- 
lowed this  by  strong  recommendations  that  drawing  be  added  to  the 
branches  prescribed  by  law.  In  his  report  for  1874  he  included  a  forceful 
article  by  C.  B.  Stetson,  entitled  "Drawing;  What  It  Is  and  W'hy  It 
Should  Be  Taught  in  the  Public  Schools." 

Just  before  the  legislature  of  Massachusetts  passed  its  law  of  1870 
making  drawing  a  required  study  in  the  schools,  an  art  department  was 
established  in  the  High  School  of  Syracuse,  with  a  class  for  the  training 
of  public  school  teachers.  This  step  was  indicative  of  a  movement 
throughout  the  State  of  New  York.  Pressure  was  brought  to  bear  upon 
the  legislature  to  follow  the  lead  already  given  by  Massachusetts  and 
Maine.  Ihe  recommendations  made  took  shape  during  the  legislative 
session  of  1875.  and  in  May  of  that  year  a  mandatory  law  was  passed 
requiring  instruction  in  drawing  in  the  normal  schools  and  "in  at  least 
one  department  of  the  schools  of  each  city."     Each  union  school  or  free 


42  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

school  district  was  also  required  to  give  instruction  unless  excused  by 
the  superintendent  of  schools. 

Xeil  Gilmour,  then  State  superintendent  of  schools,  in  a  circular 
which  he  issued  early  in  August  of  1875,  interpreted  the  law  referring  to 
elementary  schools,  by  stating  that  City  Boards  of  Education  might  intro- 
duce the  work  either  in  the  primary,  intermediate,  or  grammar  depart- 
ments. He  suggested,  however,  that  the  beginning  be  made  in  the  gram- 
mar schools  and  recommended  the  employment  of  special  teachers  "for 
a  time,"  adding  "but  drawing,  like  other  branches  of  study,  must  ulti- 
mately be  taught  by  the  regular  teachers." 

It  must  not  be  gathered  that  drawing  was  thus  introduced  for  the 
first  time  into  the  schools  of  New  York  State.  Many  cities  and  union 
school  districts  had  included  it  as  a  part  of  their  instruction  for  a  number 
of  years.  This  was  also  true  of  a  number  of  other  States  which  never 
reached  the  point  of  taking  legislative  action,  but  left  to  the  initiative  of 
individual  cities,  the  development  of  drawing  in  their  respective  schools. 

THE    CENTENNIAL   EXHIBITION. 

Influential  as  had  been  the  international  exhibitions  of  185 1  and  1867, 
a  world's  fair  was  now  to  be  held  which  was  in  a  much  more  striking 
way,  to  affect  the  development  of  industrial  art  throughout  the  country. 
This  was  the  exhibition  held  at  Philadelphia  in  1876  to  celebrate  the 
hundredth  anniversary  of  the  nation's  establishment.  As  an  agent  in 
raising  public  standards  of  taste  it  did  striking  service.  The  great  picture 
galleries  were  a  revelation  and  a  delight  to  thousands  who  had  never 
before  had  an  opportunity  to  see  pictures  in  such  numbers  and  excellence. 
The  contributions  of  foreign  nations  also  excited  admiration  for  the  dis- 
play of  skilled  craftsmanship,  with  a  realization,  similar  to  that  created  in 
England  in  185 1.  that  the  country  must  look  to  itself  if  it  would  compete 
with  the  state-trained  artists  of  foreign  workshops. 

Walter  Smith  was  far  too  w-ise  an  administrator  to  fail  to  take  ad- 
vantage of  the  opportunity  offered  to  present  at  Philadelphia  the  merits 
of  his  work  in  Boston  and  throughout  the  State  of  Massachusetts.  The 
great  fair  had  not  given  to  the  public  schools  a  hundredth  part  of  that 
space  which  was  to  be  offered  for  their  exhibits  at  the  expositions  in 
Chicago   and    St.   Louis,   but  in  the   small   rooms   which   were   available 


OBJECT      AND      ILLUSTRATIVE      DRAWING,      "HIAWATHA,"    THIRD    YEAR,    ELEMENTARY 
SCHOOLS,    NEW    YORK,    N.    Y. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  ART  EDUCATION.  45 

there  were  hunj^  drawings  from  the  Normal  Art  School  and  from 
twenty-four  of  the  towns  of  Massachusetts.  It  is  evident  that  this  work 
attracted  no  little  attention,  for  Smith  states  in  his  report  for  1877  that 
over  30,000  people  visited  this  collection  within  three  days. 

Two  of  the  foreign  exhibitions  in  the  Centennial  lent  particular  aid 
to  the  movement  for  instruction  in  the  arts.  The  first  was  the  English 
showing,  which,  compared  with  the  exhibition  of  185 1,  was  a  striking 
commentary  on  the  advance  which  English  manufacturers  had  made  in 
the  arts.  The  other  was  the  manual  work  shown  by  Russia.  This  came 
as  a  great  surprise  to  those  who  were  ignorant  of  the  fine  work  of  the 
Russian  peasant  artisans,  and  unconscious  of  the  striking  advance  which 
had  been  made  in  technical  training  in  the  Imperial  School  at  Moscow.  It 
was  the  exhibition  from  this  school  which  suggested  to  Dr.  Runkle,  head 
of  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  the  model  for  the  shops 
introduced  into  the  latter  institution.  From  these  shops  the  lessons  learned 
at  the  Centennial  were  destined  to  develop  and  spread  through  the  high 
schools  to  the  elementary  grades  of  a  score  of  cities,  the  constructive  work 
striking  its  roots  downward  until  it  met  a  similar  practice  extending 
upward  from  the  kindergarten. 

After  the  Centennial,  many  reports  from  city  and  State  superin- 
tendents of  schools  presented  recommendations  in  favor  of  drawing  and 
offered  arguments  based  on  the  showing  made  at  Philadelphia.  New 
York  City  had  introduced  drawnng  in  1875  in  obedience  to  the  State 
law\  and  in  1880  the  Superintendent  of  the  City  Schools  noted  over  two 
thousand  four  hundred  classes  in  which  drawing  was  regularly  taught. 
The  Superintendent  of  Cincinnati  in  the  same  year  commended  the 
marked  advance  made  in  the  subject,  which  had  been  introduced  into  the 
schools  shortly  after  the  Civil  War.  In  the  following  year  the  latter 
city  reorganized  its  drawing  department  with  a  superintendent  and  four 
assistants. 

Significant  action  now-  followed  by  the  National  Association  of  School 
Superintendents,  which  met  in  Washington  in  1879  and  passed,  among 
other  resolutions,  one  stating  that  industrial  drawing  should  form  one  of 
the  fundamental  branches  of  study  in  all  grades.  This  resolution  was 
indicative  of  the  firm  place  which  the  subject  had  by  this  time  secured  in 
the  elementary  curriculum.  It  may  be  added  that  the  Committee  of 
Fifteen  of  the  National  Education  Association  in  1895  P"^  the  Association 


46  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

again  on  record  by  the  recommendation  of  its  "sub-committee  on  the 
correlation  of  studies"  that  drawing  be  taught  for  at  least  an  hour  a  week 
from  the  second  to  the  eighth  year." 


POST  CENTENNIAL  DEVELOPMENT. 

The  effect  of  the  Centennial  on  both  lay  and  teaching  public,  together 
with  the  industrial  development  of  the  country  now  proceeding  in  giant 
strides,  was  to  foster  the  creation  of  a  variety  of  institutions  to  provide 
for  teachers  schooled  in  the  arts  of  drawing  and  design.  The  United 
States  Bureau  of  Education  secured  statistics  in  regard  to  these  art 
schools  in  1881  and  was  able  to  present  a  list  of  thirty-seven  such  institu- 
tions, of  which  no  less  than  twelve  had  been  organized  since  the  Phila- 
delphia exposition.  This  round  dozen  of  schools  inclvided  the  Art  School 
of  The  Art  Institute  of  Chicago,  The  Decorative  Art  Society  of  Balti- 
more, The  School  of  the  Boston  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  The  Art  School 
of  Smith  College,  the  school  established  by  The  Art  Association  of  Spring- 
field, The  Society  of  Decorative  Art  of  New  York,  The  School  of  Design 
of  \  assar,  The  Women's  Art  Museum  Association  of  Cincinnati,  The 
Columbus  Art  School,  The  Pennsylvania  School  of  industrial  Art,  The 
Rhode  Island  School  of  Design,  and  the  school  of  The  Washington  Art 
Club.  A  few  of  these  institutions  were  created  for  the  purpose  of  train- 
ing painters  and  illustrators,  but  in  a  large  majority  of  cases  they  also 
sought  to  train  teachers  of  drawing  and  design. 

Another  significant  force  very  shortly  came  to  the  fore  in  a  move- 
ment known  under  the  general  title  of  "Child  Study."  Born  of  the  scien- 
tific attitude  which  was  coming  to  be  taken  toward  all  knowledge,  and 
fostered  by  G.  Stanley  Hall,  Colonel  Parker  and  the  brilliant  band  of 
men  and  women  who  studied  under  these  leaders,  this  characteristic  phase 
of  the  so  called  "New  Education"  lent  the  aid  of  psychologist  and  physi- 
ologist to  the  plea  that  the  growing  child  be  given  large  and  varied  oppor- 
tunity for  motor  expression — for  "doing,"  that  is,  through  drawing  and 
constructive  work  of  all  kinds. 

The  work  of  Hall  and  Parker,  together  with  the  contributions  of 
Dewey,  Lukens,  Barnes,  Sully,  Scott,  O'Shea,  and  a  score  more,  served 
to  change  materially  some  of  the  phases  of  the  course  of  study  which 

'■■Report    of     Committee    of     Fifteen,     New     Vork,     1895,    page   93. 


ILLUSTRATIVE    DRAWING,    SECOND   AND  THIRD  YEARS,  ELEMENTARY   SCHOOLS, 
MONTCLAIR,    N.    J. 


DErELOPMEXT  OF  ART  EDUCATION.  49 

Walter  Smith  had  sought  to  develop.  By  this  time  Smith's  own  star  had 
sadly  set.  He  had  retired  from  the  Normal  Art  School  in  the  summer 
of  1881,  after  rendering  his  only  report  to  the  school  committee  of  the 
City  of  Boston.  In  this  document  he  recites  the  efforts  he  had  made 
during  his  nine  years  of  service,  to  develop  drawing  in  both  the  ele- 
mentary and  high  schools.  During  these  years  he  had  incorporated  his 
plan  of  teaching  in  a  series  of  drawing-books  which  had  been  introduced 
by  superintendents  in  a  number  of  other  cities.  These  books,  and  others 
made  by  rival  authors,  took  the  place  of  the  cards  which  had  been  used 
as  copies  by  previous  generations  of  pupils.  The  older  copies  had  offered 
for  the  most  part  pictorial  illustrations  for  the  children  in  what  would  now 
be  called  the  intermediate  and  grammar  grades.  They  lacked  the  more 
systematic  and  formal  approach  which  Smith  believed  essential  to  success. 

Smith's  system,  to  use  his  own  words,  was :  "The  basing  of  all 
drawing  on  a  geometrical  foundation  and,  by  use  of  instruments,  to  learn 
the  properties  of  regular  form ;  and  the  pfactice  also  of  exercises  in  de- 
sign." He  advocated  the  drawing  model  in  the  form  of  geometric  discs 
and  solids,  and  planned  his  lessons  in  sequential  exercises  very  appealing 
to  the  schoolmaster.  It  is.  however,  to  be  suspected  that  these  had  no 
great  interest  for  the  pupil.  The  aesthetic  elements  which  appeared  in 
his  work  w-ere  of  similar  dr}-  and  rather  formal  type.  With  other  teachers 
of  drawing,  he  had  yet  to  learn  that  a  real  interest  in  design  and  an  in- 
telligent appreciation  of  it,  can  only  be  secured  when  the  patterns  made 
are  for  use. 

\'arious  other  drawing  books  appeared  upon  the  market,  developed 
by  commercial  houses,  which  saw  in  the  rapidly  increasing  interest  in  the 
subject,  opportunity  for  profit  in  purveying  needed  text-books  and  sup- 
plies. To  the  energy  of  these  establishments  was  due  in  no  small  degree 
the  introduction  of  drawing  in  numberless  towns  throughout  the  IVIiddle 
West.  In  the  successive  editions  of  these  text-books,  one  may  note  from 
year  to  year,  an  increasing  freedom  in  the  lessons  suggested  for  all  pupils 
and  a  growing  emphasis  on  the  teaching  of  appreciation  of  fine  form  and 
good  pattern,  by  the  use  of  much  illustrative  matter.  This  change,  how- 
ever, was  slow.  As  a  whole  the  drawing  books  for  the  lower  grades  long 
retained  their  original  studied  approach  through  lines,  oblongs,  pennants 
and  geometric  interpretations  of  natural  forms.  This  continued  until  the 
spirited   and   child-like   work   done   from  imagination,   life   and   brightly 


50  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

colored  toys,  by  teachers  spurred  by  the  "child-students,"  sounded  the  first 
strokes  of  the  knell  of  the  drawing  book  in  the  elementary  schools. 

To  the  child  study  movement  previous  reference  has  been  made.  It 
formed  one  aspect  of  the  physiological  study  of  education,  which  in  tiie 
closing  quarter  of  the  Nineteenth  Century  served  to  emphasize  the  organic 
basis  of  education.  Genetic  psychology,  with  its  careful  studies  of  in- 
stincts and  interests,  came  as  a  quickening  breeze  into  the  educational 
field.  It  made  plain  not  only  the  natural  reactions  of  childhood,  but  also 
the  necessity  of  considering  the  individual  child  and  the  peculiarities  of 
his  particular  growth  and  development. 

To  the  interested  teachers  of  drawing  the  interpretations  of  childish 
sketches  made  by  Lukens,'"  O'Shea,"  Barnes''  and  others  came  as  a 
sharp  commentary  upon  the  approach  which  had  been  made  through  dot, 
line,  and  triangle.  It  was  seen  that  the  drawing  of  the  little  child  is  not 
a  drill  which  he  is  willing  to  undertake  to  perfect  technical  skill,  but  a 
normal  means  of  expression  coming  before  writing,  and  serving  to  tell 
something  which  the  child's  limited  vocabulary  w'ill  not  permit  him  to 
present  in  words.  To  quote  Lukens :  "The  things  children  like  to  draw- 
are  heads  of  imaginary  people,  human  figures  much  dressed  up,  scenes 
illustrating  stories,  trees,  flowers,  houses,  animals.  Three-fourths  of  their 
drawings  are  human  figures  with  human  interests  linked  with  them." 
Mrs.  Maitland,  in  an  interesting  study  of  some  fifteen  hundred  drawings, 
found  but  five  per  cent,  of  the  children  who  voluntarily  made  geometric 
designs,  while  forty-five  per  cent,  of  the  drawings  contained  human 
figures,  and  nearly  tv^enty-five  per  cent,  animals. 

\Mth  these  lessons  made  plain  to  drawing  supervisors  w-ere  others 
that  did  not  fail  to  afifect  their  attitude  toward  the  more  formal  approach 
to  the  sul)iect.  Chief  among  the  latter  was  a  growing  emphasis  on  the 
social  elements  in  education  and  on  the  necessity  of  relating  the  work  of 
the  elementary  grades  in  intimate  fashion  to  the  neighborhood  interests 
which  make  up  the  environment  of  every  school.  Offered  by  Dewey, '^ 
Baldwin,'*  Docpp'"  and  others,  this  idea  of  the  school's  relation  to  society 
served  to  influence  to  a  constantly  growing  degree,  the  attitude  of  each 

'"  "Pedagogical    Seminary,"    \'oI.    XI.    page    97. 

"  National    Kdi'cation   Associaticn    Report,    1894,   page    1017. 

'-  "Studies  of  Education,"   \'ol.   II,   Philadelphia,    1902. 

'''  "School   and   Society,"   New   York,     1900. 

'*  "Industrial    Social    Education,"    Springfield,    1903. 

'•'  "Place    of    Industries    in    Elementary    Education,"    Chicago,    1902. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  ART  EDUCATION.  S3 

supervisor  toward  the  course  of  study.  It  came  more  and  more  to  be 
seen  that  not  only  should  the  work  of  the  lower  grades  be  both  free  and 
individual,  but  that  it  should  reflect  the  particular  interests  of  the  school. 
This  idea,  born  of  a  few  years,  is  yet  in  the  process  of  development.  It 
has  inevitably  acted  to  displace  the  set  and  sequential  exercise  from  its 
point  of  vantage,  and  to  oblige  each  supervisor  to  devise,  in  a  greater  or 
less  degree,  a  course  of  study  particularly  adapted  to  the  school  in  which 
it  is  offered. 

It  is  not  to  be  assumed  that  the  changes  referred  to  only  affected 
the  primary  grades.  Other  and  not  less  important  alterations  took  place 
coincidentally  in  the  work  for  the  higher  classes.  The  study  of  color, 
which  in  the  early  8o's  was  to  be  found  here  and  there  as  a  formal  learn- 
ing of  color  names  from  charts  and  paper  tablets,  blossomed  within  a 
decade  into  the  wide  use  of  water  color,  from  the  class  of  the  a-b-c-darian 
to  that  of  the  highest  grade  of  the  high  school.  With  this  study  there 
was  also  begun  a  much  more  serious  effort  to  teach  the  principles  of 
design. 

THE    INTERNATIONAL    E.XPOSITIOXS   OF  CHICAGO  AND  ST.   LOUIS. 

Excellent  opportunity  was  offered  to  supervisors  to  observe  the  newer 
tendencies  in  their  work  in  the  huge  international  exposition  held  in  Chi- 
cago in  1893.  Thousands  of  square  feet  were  there  given  to  the  display 
of  educational  work,  which  had  been  squeezed  into  a  few  small  rooms  at 
the  Centennial.  For  every  city  that  had  contributed  drawings  to  the 
World's  Fair  of  '76,  a  score  of  towns  now  sent  to  Chicago.  In  con- 
junction with  the  work  of  the  art  departments  of  the  schools  there  also 
appeared  a  manual  training  exhibition  which  represented  the  striking 
results  of  the  growth  sprung  from  seed  sown  seventeen  years  before. 

In  its  aesthetic  influence  upon  the  people  of  the  country,  the  exhibi- 
tion at  Chicago  was.  if  {X)ssible,  more  far  reaching  than  that  of  Philadel- 
phia. Its  main  buildings  formed  an  imposing  architectural  unit,  and  its 
galleries,  filled  with  pictures,  statuary,  and  a  myriad  products  of  handi- 
craft, gave  the  vasi  throngs  which  gathered  within  its  gates  new  stand- 
ards of  beauty  and  new  canons  of  taste.  Thousands  flocked  to  the  ex- 
position from  the  cities  and  thousands  more  from  the  countless 
small  towns  in  the  Middle  West.     Each  of  these  visitors  returned  home 


54  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

with  a  new  conception  of  art  and  architecture,  and  a  new  respect  for  the 
crafts  and  that  which  makes  for  their  perfection.  It  is  not  strange  to 
read  that,  after  the  exposition,  some  of  the  normal  art  schools  reported 
every  class  member  engaged  to  fill  a  position  immediately  on  graduation. 

Scarcely  had  the  echoes  of  the  Columbian  Fair  died  away,  and  the 
memory  of  its  splendid  court  of  honor  been  dimmed  with  the  mist  of  a 
decade  of  years,  when  the  schools  were  called  upon  again,  to  illustrate 
at  St.  Louis  the  progress  they  had  made  under  the  impetus  given  by  the 
showing  of  '93.  At  the  latter  exposition,  held  in  1904  in  honor  of  the 
Louisiana  purchase,  a  vast  hall  was  given  over  to  the  display  of  educa- 
tional work.  Great  cities  now  vied  with  one  another  in  sending  case 
after  case  of  portfolios,  charts  and  models,  and  there,  for  the  first  time, 
was  seen  how  intimate  the  relations  had  become  between  the  drawing,  the 
construction  and  the  design. 

Than  the  St.  Louis  Exposition  no  better  opportunity  to  study  the  de- 
velopment of  the  arts  in  the  public  schools  could  be  imagined.  Every 
phase  shown  bore  impress  of  the  philosophy  underlying  the  growing  free- 
dom and  the  growing  beauty  of  school  work.  In  the  lower  grades  there 
appeared  much  illustrative  work  related  to  the  work  in  language  and 
frankly  expressive  of  the  little  child's  interests  in  the  activities  around 
him.  Some  was  free  and  some  more  formally  devised  as  pictorial  com- 
positions. The  latter  reflected  the  aesthetic  wave  which  rose  high  in 
the  early  90's,  bringing  a  keen  desire  on  the  part  of  its  studio  trained  dis- 
ciples to  school  all  pupils  in  the  beauties  of  pictorial  art  and  in  the  prin- 
ciples of  design.  ' 

Many  of  the  effects  of  this  desire  of  beauty  acted  to  the  advantage 
of  the  drawing  done  in  the  schools.  This  the  exhibition  showed  in  the 
higher  grades,  where  the  models  offered  were  no  longer  the  geometric 
or  so-called  '■tyi)e"  forms  of  a  dozen  years  before.  Everywhere  appeared 
an  effort  to  secure  objects  interesting  both  in  line  and  color,  and  there 
was  an  evident  effort  to  teach  color  by  the  use  of  it  rather  than  through 
the  older  rigid  approach  by  way  of  the  tints  and  shades  of  a  color  chart. 

To  a  serious  critic  something  might  have  seemed  lacking  with  all 
the  advance  that  was  shown.  He  would  have  noted  with  surprise  to  what 
a  great  extent  the  pencil  had  been  abandoned  in  favor  of  the  brush,  chalk, 
charcoal  and  crayon,  and  this  surprise  would  have  been  mixed  with  regret 
tnat  the  efforts  to  secure  good  arrangements  had  been  effected  too  often 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  ART  EDUGATION.  55 

at  the  cost  of  good  drawing.  Many  of  the  compositions  had  gained 
in  excellence  in  pattern  at  the  expense  of  accurate  seeing.  In  the  work 
in  applied  design,  the  exhibition  showed  a  marked  advance  over  that 
of  a  decade  past.  Spots,  blots  and  dashes  made  up  into  formal  rosettes 
and  borders  still  appeared  here  and  there  in  the  primary  and  grammar 
grades,  but  throughout  the  earlier  years  there  was  much  evidence  of  a 
desire  to  make  the  primary  work  free,  by  permitting  the  little  children  to 
use  a  variety  of  decorative  motifs  drawn  from  their  study  of  nature  and 
from  their  story  telling  and  language  work. 

In  the  higher  grades  there  was  a  noticeable  use  of  pattern  planned 
for  actual  application  to  constructed  forms.  Scores  and  hundreds  of  the 
latter  models,  of  both  cardboard  and  wood,  were  shown.  While  the  deco- 
rations applied  to  these  often  lacked  sound  structural  qualities,  they  still 
were  infinitely  more  individual  and  intelligent  than  the  wiry  pencil  de- 
signs of  the  abandoned  drawing  book.  Here  and  there  were  copies  of 
historic  ornaments,  but  these  appeared  only  in  isolated  cases,  though  at  the 
exposition  of  eleven  years  before  they  might  have  been  found  in  the  work 
of  all  the  larger  cities.  The  disappearance  of  these  copies  was  in  part 
due  to  the  introduction  of  model  drawing  in  all  the  grades,  and  in  part 
to  the  changed  point  of  view  as  to  the  teaching  of  design.  With  the 
growth  of  constructive  work  and  the  coincident  development  of  applied 
design,  the  Greek  anthemion,  the  Roman  rosette,  and  the  Byzantine  inter- 
lace were  found  to  be  of  less  and  less  service.  Other  and  better  methods 
of  teaching  the  principles  of  decoration  were  developed,  and  the  practice 
scroll,  acanthus  and  trefoil  disappeared  into  the  dusty  limbo  whence  had 
passed  the  drawing  cards  of  the  age  that  preceded  them. 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  COXSTRUCTIVE  WORK. 

The  relation  shown  at  the  St.  I.ouis  Exposition  between  the  con- 
structive work  and  the  other  arts  was  one  of  comparatively  recent  growth. 
Indeed,  as  has  been  noted,  the  so-called  manual  training  movement  dated 
back  but  some  five  and  twenty  years.  Futile  attempts  had  been  made 
before  the  Civil  War  to  establish  what  were  called  manual  labor  schools, 
but  these  quite  failed  to  attract  approval,  and  their  wood-working  shops 
were  soon  closed.  The  suggestions  offered  at  the  Centennial  by  the  Mos- 
cow Technical  School,  appealed  as  more  to  the  purpose  to  Dr.  Runkle, 


56  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

president  of  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology.  He  saw  in  the 
various  "type  exercises"  shown,  the  very  models  designed  to  familiarize 
his  technical  students  with  representative  tools  and  processes.  The  work 
was  therefore  introduced  into  the  Institute,  and  he,  by  his  earnest  advo- 
■cacy,  won  many  friends  for  it.  Shortly  after  this,  St.  Louis  saw  a  manual 
training  school  of  secondary  grade  established  under  the  direction  of 
Professor  Woodward,  of  Washington  University,  while  a  similar  institu- 
tion was  developed  in  Chicago  under  the  auspices  of  the  Commercial 
Club.    The  former  graduated  its  first  class  in  1881  and  the  latter  in  1886. 

The  economic  reasons  which  had  led  to  the  introduction  of  indus- 
trial drawing  in  Massachusetts,  were  yearly  being  felt  more  keenly 
throughout  the  country.  The  demand  for  a  more  practical  type  of  educa- 
tion was  voiced  on  many  sides,  and  school  commissioners  everywhere 
w^atched  with  growing  favor  the  development  of  the  early  manual  train- 
ing high  schools  established  under  priyate  auspices.  One  of  the  first 
public  school  systems  to  follow  the  lead  of  St.  Louis  and  Chicago  was 
that  of  Baltimore,  which  opened  a  manual  training  school  of  secondary 
grade  in  ]\Iarch,  1884.  Cleveland  started  one,  which  was  opened  under 
private  auspices  in  1885,  but  was  soon  absorbed  into  the  public  school 
system.  Toledo  had  closely  followed  Baltimore  by  establishing  a  manual 
training  high  school  in  October,  1884,  while  Omaha  placed  a  workshop 
in  its  high  school  in  the  succeeding  year.  At  this  time  Philadelphia  in- 
stituted a  similar  school. 

From  now  on  the  growth  of  manual  training  in  the  high  schools 
was  rapid  and  was  accompanied  by  a  constant  effort  to  extend  the  work 
downward  into  the  elementary  grades.  New  York  City  introduced  wood- 
working into  the  grammar  schools  in  1887,  following  experimental  work 
done  in  Boston  the  year  before.     Other  cities  soon  followed. 

\\'ith  this  practice  in  woodwork  was  also  begun  hand  work  of  a 
more  elementary  type,  and  the  years  from  1890  to  1900  saw  the  appoint- 
ment of  scores  of  directors  of  manual  work.  By  the  former  date  some 
thirty-seven  school  systems  had  included  manual  training  in  the  elementary 
course  of  study.  Four  years  later  the  number  had  increased  to  ninety- 
five,  and  six  years  later  still,  to  one  hundred  and  sixty-nine.  The  move- 
ment now  gained  with  every  added  month,  so  that  the  statistics  of  the 
Department  of  Education  for  1905  record  four  hundred  and  twenty  school 
systems  having  manual  work  as  part  of  the  elementary  curriculum. 


OHJECT    AND    ILLUSTRATIVE    ORAWING.    "TRANSPORTATION/'    THIRD    YEAR,    ELEMENTARY 
SCHOOLS,   NEW    YORK,    N.   Y. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  ART  EDUCATION.  59 

For  several  years  after  the  Centennial  the  models  made  in  the  new 
school  workshops  had  stamped  upon  them  traces  of  their  Russian  origin. 
Designed  to  give  orderly  practice  with  a  variety  of  tools,  they  offered 
their  exercises  on  separate  blocks  of  wood  which  served  no  purpose  save 
to  give  opportunity  for  the  necessary  tool  manipulation.  As  the  work 
developed  it  was  discovered  that  the  sloyder's  practice  of  making  models 
of  use  and  interest,  was  of  far  more  valvie  than  abstract  drills  on  unrelated 
exercises.  Particularly  was  it  found  that  the  elementary  school  pupil  de- 
manded the  useful  model.  The  forms  offered,  therefore,  changed  rapidly, 
and  by  the  beginning  of  the  new  century  the  shopwork  in  the  grades 
dealt  largely  with  the  making  of  brackets,  boxes,  racks  and  stands  of 
various  kinds.  These  offered  in  a  majority  of  cases  the  incentive  of  per- 
sonal possession  as  an  inducement  to  excellent  construction ;  the  models 
made  were  for  the  maker. 

This  change  in  the  nature  of  the  constructive  work  was  not  con- 
fined to  the  shops,  but  appeared  coincidently  in  the  work  of  all  grades 
from  the  kindergarten  up.  More  and  more  the  recently  appointed 
directors  of  manual  work  came  to  see  that  hand  work  of  every  description 
found  its  most  satisfactory  expression  when  the  forms  made  responded 
closely  to  the  interests  and  the  needs  of  the  school.  Thus  in  the  primary 
classes  the  early  models  originally  drawn  from  the  practice  of  the  kinder- 
garten lost  their  prim  and  geometric  character,  and,  like  the  illustrative 
drawing,  came  to  reflect  the  child's  love  of  play  and  his  interest  in  the 
home,  the  garden  and  the  life  about  him.  Folded  paper  stars,  woven 
splints  and  little  cubes  of  clay  had  marked  the  introduction  of  hand  work 
into  the  primary  grades.  But  the  St.  Louis  Exhibition  saw  much  of 
this  work  abandoned  in  favor  of  more  individual  exercises.  The  "fold- 
ing paper"  was  made  up  into  chairs,  wagons,  barns  and  outbuildings,  the 
splints  replaced  by  raffia  braided  into  baskets,  and  the  clay  prisms  and 
spheres  by  lifelike  little  animal  forms  made  to  illustrate  the  story  of  "Cin- 
derella" or  to  help  fill  the  "farm  yard"  on  the  sand  table. 

In  the  higher  grades  the  constructive  work  no  longer  appeared  as 
cardboard  cylinders,  cones  and  parallelopipedons,  but  as  pin  cases,  trinket 
boxes,  calendar  mounts,  needle  books,  tie  holders  and  a  host  of  other 
forms  devised  for  use  in  the  school  or  for  gifts  in  the  home.  These 
models  bore  evidences  of  increased  technical  study  on  the  part  of  the 
special  teachers.     The  flimsy  construction  which  had  marked  the  earlier 


6o  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

work  at  Chicago  had  become  stauncher,  and  in  the  handwork  of  the  older 
pupils — the  portfolios,  cases  and  boxes — there  was  an  encouraging  note 
of  professional  excellence.  The  more  advanced  schools  showed  the  first 
examples  of  that  work  in  the  crafts  which  in  the  last  half  dozen  years 
has  developed  the  country  over.  Some  offered  ceramic  forms  fired  in 
the  school  kiln,  some  work  in  metal  drawn  into  bowls,  beaten  into  candle- 
sticks or  pierced  for  simple  jewelry.  Others  showed  tooled  leather,  tex- 
tiles stencilled  and  block  printed,  or  books  firmly  sewed  and  bound. 

Through  all  this  work  appeared  the  application  of  design.  No  longer 
as  abstract  patterns,  the  decorations  made  by  the  children  had  been 
applied  from  the  lowest  primary  class.  Followed  through  the  grades 
these  patterns  werfe  seen  to  change  frorn  gay  little  borders,  made  for  the 
Indian  tepee  or  the  playhouse  rug,  to  handsomely  devised  book  covers,  or 
to  patterns  to  be  stained  upon  some  box-top  or  stencilled  upon  some  cush- 
ion or  table  cover.  The  insistent  note  throughout  the  entire  exhibition 
was  that  of  use  and  of  beauty  in  use.  It  was  a  note  born  of  a  new  creed 
of  the  arts,  one  which  preached  them  as  agents  which  should  deal  with 
realities — with  things  made  for  use  and  not  for  drill  or  show. 

The  course  of  study  responsible  for  the  exhibition  at  St.  Louis  con- 
tamed  some  elements  not  capable  of  illustration.  Chief  among  these  was 
the  study  of  pictures,  a  subject  which  had  been  widely  introduced  about 
the  time  of  the  Chicago  fair.  This  was  a  reflection  of  the  desire  of  many 
drawing  teachers  to  make  their  work  more  a  study  in  appreciation  than 
a  study  in  technique.  The  rise  of  this  feeling  preceded,  as  has  been  noted, 
the  movement  toward  the  crafts.  It  has  seen  in  the  latter  movement  an 
element  which,  in  large  measure,  is  reshaping  its  plans  and  methods.  To 
these  changes  in  the  curriculum  attention  will  presently  be  devoted. 

PROFESSIONAL    SUPERVISION    AND   ITS   GROWTH. 

The  stimulus  given  to  the  training  of  art  supervisors  by  the  Centen- 
nial Exhibition  received  fresh  impetus  at  each  of  the  succeeding  inter- 
national fairs.  Other  schools  than  those  already  named  came  into  the 
field,  prominent  among  these  being  the  Normal  Department  of  Pratt  In- 
stitute of  Brooklyn.  Each  year  since  1886,  when  its  first  class  graduated, 
this  school  has  sent  out  into  the  field  a  group  of  supervising  teachers 
highly  trained  under  the  direction  of  Walter  S.  Perry,  who  is  himself  a 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  ART  EDUCATION.  63 

graduate  of  the  Massachusetts  Normal  Art  School.  In  1888  the  Teachers' 
College  of  New  York  also  began  to  train  supervisors  of  drawing.  Since 
1904  it  has  developed  its  art  department  under  the  direction  of  Arthur 
W.  Dow,  a  painter  of  reputation  and  a  teacher  who  has  laid  much  em- 
phasis on  the  study  of  design,  and  on  what  he  terms  the  synthetic  ap- 
proach to  the  teaching  of  drawing  through  art  appreciation."" 

Walter  Smith,  while  director  of  the  work  in  the  Boston  schools,  had 
laid  strong  emphasis  on  the  necessity  of  the  teaching  being  done  by  the 
"regular"  or  "class"  teachers,  both  in  the  elementary  schools  and  the  high 
schools.  As  time  elapsed  it  became  evident  that  this  practice  could  not 
maintain  in  the  secondary  schools,  but  the  wisdom  of  the  injunction  for 
the  lower  grades  has  not  ceased  to  be  apparent.  Indeed  it  has  more  and 
more  come  to  be  seen,  that  the  drawing  of  the  elementary  schools  is  best 
taught  by  the  class  teacher,  and  that  the  part  to  be  played  by  the  special 
teacher  is  that  of  one  who  directs  and  supervises,  who  assists  in  planning 
work,  and  by  demonstration  and  model  lessons,  illustrates  the  manner  in 
which  it  is  to  ]ye  carried  out. 

This  natural  growth  of  the  office  of  the  special  teacher  of  drawing  has 
lent  more  and  more  to  the  development  of  a  body  of  professional  knowl- 
edge and  to  a  professional  attitude  and  standing  on  the  part  of  the  spe- 
cialists. The  normal  art  schools,  which  originally  laid  emphasis  almost 
solely  on  technical  training,  have  come  to  lead  their  students  much  more 
to  a  study  of  the  art  of  supervision.  With  the  technical  practice  in  draw- 
ing, construction  and  design,  there  is  now  required  consideration  of  other 
phases  of  the  curriculum,  of  child  growth  and  psychology,  and  of  the  or- 
ganization and  administration  of  the  art  work  of  an  elementary  school 
system.  In  addition  to  the  study  of  methods  and  the  preparation  of 
syllabi,  study  is  also  given  to  the  special  business  of  supervision,  the  prin- 
ciples of  criticism,  the  preparation  of  illustrative  material  and  the  mani- 
fold details  of  organization  made  necessary  by  the  more  intimate  relations 
which  have  been  established  between  drawing  and  the  other  branches  of 
the  curriculum. 

The  professional  spirit  thus  engendered  has  been  fostered  by  the 
growth  of  various  organizations  of  art  teachers.  First  among  these  was 
the  Massachusetts  Art  Teachers'  Association,  founded  in  1884  by  stu- 
dents of  the  Normal  Art  School.    Charles  C.  Perkins,  who  had  earnestly 

"■See  "Teachers'  College   Record,"  June,    1908. 


64  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

promoted  the  cause  of  the  school,  was  the  first  president.  The  present 
association  of  the  Massachusetts  teachers  has  descended  with  one  or  two 
interruptions  from  the  parent  society. 

In  1884  the  Art  Department  of  the  National  Education  Association 
was  organized  under  the  presidency  of  Langdon  S.  Thompson,  then  of 
Lafayette,  Indiana,  and  later  director  of  drawing  in  Jersey  City,  New 
Jersey.  From  1880  to  1890  a  number  of  local  associations  were  founded 
in  different  States.  One  of  these,  formed  at  Hartford,  Connecticut,  in 
1888,  was  eleven  years  later  merged  in  the  Eastern  Art  Teachers'  Asso- 
ciation, which  thereafter  continued  to  meet  in  the  New  England  and 
Middle  Atlantic  States,  drawing  its  membership  from  as  far  south  as 
Maryland,  and  as  far  west  as  Ohio.  In  1893  a  strong  Western  association 
was  organized  in  Chicago  during  the  progress  of  the  World's  Fair.  This 
society  has  since  met  in  the  larger  cities  of  the  Middle  ^^'est,  and  has 
gathered  a  large  membership  from  the  great  basin  of  the  Lakes  and  the 
Mississippi  Valley. 

Other  and  smaller  State  associations  have  served  to  promote  pro- 
fessional intercourse  among  their  members,  while  a  national  organization, 
limited  in  numl^er  but  active  in  membership,  has  been  developed  in  the 
Council  of  Supervisors  of  the  Manual  Arts.  This  association  was  formed 
by  the  directors  of  art  and  of  mamial  training  in  a  number  of  the  larger 
cities,  chiefly  in  the  East.  It  was  organized  in  1901,  and  exists  primarily 
for  the  purpose  of  publishing  each  year  a  "Year  Book"  on  the  arts.  This 
contains  the  contributions  of  its  members  and  serves  as  material  for  the 
"discussions"  of  its  annual  meetings.  Reference  has  already  been  made 
to  the  union,  contimially  being  miore  closely  established,  between  the  sub- 
jects of  drawing  and  constructive  work.  This  tendency  is  emphasized 
in  the  title  of  the  Council,  which  has  made  the  words  "manual  arts" 
a  familiar  one  to  the  profession.  The  w'ords  are  used  to  include  the  sub- 
jects of  drawing,  construction  and  design. 

Both  the  Eastern  and  Western  Associations  of  drawing  teachers 
have  experienced  this  force  now^  making  toward  the  general  relation  of 
the  arts.  In  1906  the  Western  Association  invited .  into  its  membership, 
teachers  of  shop  and  other  constructive  w^ork,  and  chainged.  its  title  to  the 
"Western  Drawing  and  ^^lanual  Training  Association."  A  similar  change 
is  pending  in  the  Eastern  Art  Teachers'  Association,  which  has  planned  a 
union  with  the  Eastern  Manual  Training  Association.    The  latter  organiza- 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  ART  EDUCATION.  67 

tioii,  founded  as  the  American  Manual  Training  Association,  has  main- 
tained a  prosperous  existence  for  over  fifteen  years,  so  that  its  wiUingness 
to  unite  with  the  association  of  drawing  teachers  oflfers  strong  evidence 
of  the  community  of  interests  which  now  characterizes  the  arts  in  the 
elementary  curriculum. 

Besides  the  contributions  to  professional  literature  made  in  the 
Year  Book  of  the  Council  of  Supervisors,  and  in  the  published  trans- 
actions of  the  Eastern  and  Western  Associations,  a  score  of  volumes  and 
a  host  of  pamphlets  and  magazine  articles  have  been  contributed  within 
the  last  decade  by  the  growing  ranks  of  the  profession.  An  annotated 
bibliography  of  this  literature  has  been  included  in  the  Year  Book  of  the 
Council  which,  now  in  its  seventh  volume,  offers  nearly  a  thousand  titles 
of  articles  dealing  with  various  phases  of  supervision  and  with  practical 
methods  of  teaching. 

Two  magazines  are  supported  by  the  profession.  The  first,  "The 
Manual  Training  Magazine."  is  a  handsomely  printed  bi-monthly  published 
in  Peoria,  Illinois,  and  edited  by  Charles  A.  Bennett,  Director  of  the 
Manual  Arts  Department  of  the  Bradley  Polytechnic  Institute.  It  is  now 
in  its  ninth  year.  The  second,  originally  issued  in  September,  1901,  under 
the  editorship  of  Frederick  H.  Daniels,  as  ''The  Applied  Arts  Book,"  is 
now  conducted  by  Henry  T.  Bailey  and  published  at  Worcester,  Massa- 
chusetts. This  magazine,  a  monthly,  devotes  itself  largely  to  the  interests 
of  the  arts  in  the  elementary  schools,  and  offers  much  excellent  material 
to  teachers  in  the  smaller  towns  who  have  not  the  assistance  of  special  or 
supervisory  teachers.  The  name  was  changed  to  that  of  "The  School 
Arts  Book"  in  1903.  Its  present  editor  was  for  a  number  of  years  the 
State  agent  for  drawing  in  Massachusetts,  succeeding  in  1887,  Charles  M. 
Carter,  now  director  of  art  in  Denver,  Colorado. 

PRESENT   CONDITIONS 

The  present  time  finds  the  arts  strongly  intrenched  both  in  the  ele- 
mentary and  the  high  schools.  The  various  normal  art  schools  are  yearly 
turning  out  large  classes,  which  scarcely  suffice  to  supply  the  demand 
for  trained  specialists.  In  the  larger  cities,  the  entrance  examinations  for 
the  grade  teachers  have  been  made  to  include  both  drawing  and  ele- 
mentary constructive  work  and  design.  To  meet  these  requirements 
various  State  and  city  normal  schools  have  developed  art  departments, 


68  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

which  are  often  under  the  direction  of  highly  trained  instructors.  As  an 
additional  result  of  the  propaganda  which  has  now  been  actively  pushed 
for  over  forty  years,  there  has  grown  up  a  public,  which  itself  has  been 
largely  trained  in  schools  which  offered  more  or  less  instruction  in  draw- 
ing. This,  for  the  people  as  a  whole,  has  raised  the  standard  of  taste  in 
very  appreciable  degree.  In  addition  it  has  made  a  public  sympathetic 
in  attitude,  one,  it  might  almost  be  said,  eager  to  see  the  instruction  in 
drawing  and  design  carried  further. 

As  a  result  of  constant  discussion  in  the  professional  organizations  of 
teachers  and  throughout  the  professional  press,  there  has  come  to  be 
throughout  the  schools  themselves  a  much  better  undei  standing  of  the 
meaning  of  the  subjects  once  looked  upon  askance  as  "special."  This 
comprehension  is  not  confined  to  grade  teachers,  but  is  shared  by  super- 
visors, who  themselves,  under  the  tutelage  of  students  of  social  eco- 
nomics, have  grown  to  see  far  niore  in  their  subject  than  they  suspected. 
This  deepening  comprehension  of  the  relation  of  the  arts  to  the  social 
life  of  the  community  has  been  progressively  shown  in  the  great  exhibi- 
tions made  yearly  by  the  directors  of  the  larger  cities,  and  by  the  Eastern 
and  Western  Associations  at  their  annual  gatherings.  To  John  Dewey  and 
G.  Stanley  Hall  must,  in  large  measure,  be  given  the  credit  for  having 
affected  the  point  of  view  of  these  teachers ;  few  books  are  more  widely 
quoted  in  recent  discussions  of  the  subject  than  the  little  collection  of 
essays  called  by  Dewey  "School  and  Society"  and  the  erudite  volumes 
on  ''Adolescence"  by  the  president  of  Clark  University. 

Evidence  of  the  comprehension  of  the  social  content  of  the  arts 
appears  in  numerous  courses  of  study  developed  by  leading  directors. 
Few  of  the  larger  cities  now  use  the  drawing  book  in  any  form,  but  in 
its  stead  employ  printed  leaflets  developed  by  their  respective  supervisors. 
These  outlines  are  planned  to  offer  suggestions  to  the  grade  teachers 
which  will  enable  the  latter  to  develop  their  own  class  work  in  individual 
fashion.  In  the  primary  grades  the  method  of  organizing  the  work 
around  centres,  which  first  found  general  practice  in  New  York,"  has 
extended  widely  throughout  the  country.  This  approach  to  the  arts  seeks 
to  make  all  of  the  drawing,  construction,  and  design  reflect  the  social 
interests  of  the  child's  environment.  His  language  work,  his  nature 
study,  his  number  work,  and  drawing,  are  made  to  gather  round  centres 

^"Year   Book,    Council    of    Supervisors,    1905. 


2 

1^1 

•^ 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  ART  EDUCATION.  n 

suggested  by  the  seasons,  by  his  reading,  and  by  the  activities  of  the 
home  or  neighborhood.  The  work  of  the  higher  grades  has  similarly, 
but  in  a  more  restricted  fashion,  been  developed  in  the  more  advanced 
schools  about  social  centres  related  to  the  industries  which  have  marked 
man's  advance  in  civilization. 

Naturally  enough  not  all  curricula  show  the  tendencies  to  which 
reference  has  been  made.  In  the  Southern  States,  with  the  heavy  burdens 
imposed  by  the  Civil  War,  the  development  of  all  phases  of  school  work 
has-  been  more  or  less  restricted,  and  in  the  North  the  different  States 
with  separate  autonomy  show  wide  variations  in  the  excellence  of 
their  schools  and  in  the  forwardness  of  their  growth.  But  the  tendencies 
noted  are  those  which  characterize  the  work  as  a  whole.  There  is  on  the 
part  of  the  larger  cities  rnuch  effort  to  present  their  art  courses  in  amply 
illustrated  form.  These  often  take  the  shape  of  elaborate  pamphlets  or 
still  more  elaborate  leaflets  with  scores,  even  hundreds  of  illustrations  and 
detailed  directions  to  class  teachers." 

Throughout  these  courses  there  is  evident  an  effort  to  make  the 
drawing  itself  more  direct  and  appealing  than  has  previously  been  the 
case.  The  theoretical  approach  to  perspective  principles  has  for  the  most 
part  been  abandoned  in  the  lower  grades  for  demonstrations  made  directly 
from  the  model.  The  directions  of  leading  supervisors  lay  increasing 
emphasis  on  the  necessity  for  sound  construction  in  drawing.  Thus 
while  the  little  child  is  appealed  to  by  gaily  colored  toys  and  animal  forms 
to  be  drawn  with  chalk  in  mass,  his  older  brother  is  schooled  to  search 
out  the  refinements  of  foreshortening  in  careful  pencil  studies  of  well- 
shaped  models  in  simple  groups.  Much  work  in  quick  sketching  has 
taken  the  place  of  the  former  dictated  approach  to  the  model  drawing,  a 
practice  which  finds  its  counterpart  in  the  free-hand  working  sketches 
which  are  coming  to  occupy  an  important  place  in  the  elementary  teaching 
of  constructive  drawing  for  the  shops. 

There  is  in  short,  through  all  the  teaching  of  technique,  an  increasing 
effort  to  make  the  approach  simpler  and  more  direct,  to  convince  the  child 
that  what  he  is  doing  is  something  which  will  give  him  an  immediate 
power  of  expression,  an  ability  to  use  his  skill  in  practical  fashion, 
whether  quickly  to  sketch  from  pose  or  model,  accurately  to  develop  di- 
mensioned plan  and  elevation,  or  appropriately  to  devise  some  simple 
design  to  decorate  a  model  to  be  created  by  his  own  hand. 

"See  courses  New  York,  Chicago,  Indianapolis,  Boston,  Philadeluhia,  Hartford,  Brook- 
line,    Newark,    Pittsburg,    Yonkers. 


72  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  changes  in  the  drawing  course  have  not  been  accompHshed 
without  the  protests  of  those  who  are  strong  in  the  belief  that  the  primary 
purpose  of  the  w'ork  is  not  to  give  technical  skill  and  ability  to  produce, 
but  a  nicer  sense  of  taste  and  a  keener  power  of  appreciation.  Many 
courses  of  study  present  an  effort  to  effect  a  compromise  between  these 
points  of  view.  These  seek  to  give  a  certain  amount  of  skill,  w'hile  de- 
veloping from  the  earliest  years  aesthetic  elements  of  form,  pattern,  and 
color,  in  exercises  designed  to  lead  to  appreciation  of  these  in  the  work 
of  master  painters  or  designers. 

The  difference  in  the  views  of  different  supervisors  toward  what  is 
called  the  art  element  of  the  course  is  rather  a  difference  of  opinion  as 
to  the  age  at  which  aesthetic  phases  of  the  work  are  to  be  presented. 
Those  whose  practice  savors  the  more  strongly  of  the  painter's  studio 
urge  that  the  effort  to  develop  the  sense  of  taste  should  be  undertaken  by 
early  presenting  to  the  child  the  principles  of  design  in  problems  which 
deal  wuth  space  division  and  with  balance  and  rhythm  of  line  and  mass. 
The  critics  of  this  approach  urge  that  all  the  recent  teachings  of  psychol- 
og}'  tend  to  show^  that  the  child's  aesthetic  sense  does  not  develop  to  any 
marked  degree  before  the  adolescent  period.  Picture,  color  and  pattern 
they  would  therefore  present  to  him  early,  but  merely  for  the  sake  of  excit- 
ing his  interest  and  his  pleasure  in  the  lessons  with  which  these  dealt. 
The  picture  they  w^ould  not  use  to  attempt  to  rouse  in  the  primary  pupil 
interest  either  in  the  artist  or  in  the  refinements  of  his  composition. 
Rather  they  would  make  it  serve  as  a  convenient  medium  to  tell  a  story 
and  to  form  the  interesting  centre  of  some  language  lesson.  The  color 
sense  they  would  not  attempt  to  develop  through  artificially  grayed  hues 
or  low  toned  harmonies,  but  would  have  the  little  child  enjoy  to  the  full 
his  delight  in  the  gay  chromatics  of  the  palette  and  leave  for  the  higher 
grammar  years  the  intricacies  of  color  scales  and  names,  and  the  nicer 
harmonies  of  related  hue,  value  and  intensity. 

The  effort  to  develop  aesthetic  appreciation  in  practical  fashion  has 
led  many  directors  to  turn  their  lessons  on  color  and  design  into  house- 
hold channels;  to  relate  them,  that  is,  to  the  dress  of  the  pupils  and  to 
considerations  of  household  decoration.  More  or  less  elaborate  schemes 
have  thus  been  laid  out  to  teach  art  apart  from  technique  by  discussing 
problems  of  room  painting  and  decoration,  of  the  setting  of  the  dinner 
table,  and  of  the  choice  of  furniture,  rugs  cmd  carpets." 

'■'Stc   Sewall,   "School   Arts  Book,"   May,    1906. 


APPLIED   DESIGN,    SIXTH,    SEVENTH    AND   EIGHTH    YEARS,    ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS, 

NEW   YORK,   N.   Y. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  ART  EDUCATION.  75 

Though  supervisors  may  differ  in  regard  to  these  questions  of 
aesthetic  teaching  they  are  a  unit  in  their  advocacy  of  well  decorated 
schools.  In  1 87 1  the  High  School  for  Girls  in  Boston  saw  the  first  col- 
lection of  casts  introduced  for  the  adornment  of  the  school.  From  that 
time  to  the  present  there  has  been  a  slow  but  continuous  invasion  of  both 
casts  and  pictures  into  the  schools  throughout  the  land.  School  archi- 
tecture itself  has  improved  in  striking  fashion,  so  that  even  the  huge  city 
buildings,  housing  their  two,  three  or  even  four  thousand  children,  are 
now  attractive  structures,  bright  with  light  colored  brick  and  reflecting 
the  sunlight  from  their  acres  of  glass.  Within,  the  black  walnut  or  dark 
painted  trim  has  given  way  to  the  more  cheerful  hue  of  oak,  while  every 
year  sees  additional  pictures,  carbons,  photogravures  and  low  toned  litho- 
graphs hung  upon  their  walls.'" 

Other  elements  have  within  the  last  few  years  come  to  lend  their  aid 
to  the  training  in  appreciation.  One  of  these  is  the  art  museum,  another 
the  library.  In  this  work  the  latter  has  shown  the  way.  Librarians  the 
country  over  have  come  to  see  that  the  function  of  the  library  is  not 
merely  to  circulate  books,  but  to  guide  readers,  to  interpret  to  them  the 
possibilities  which  the  shelves  afford.  Hence  they  have  lent  their  aid  to 
art  directors,  not  merely  by  the  purchase  of  books,  valuable  both  to 
teachers  and  to  pupils,  but  by  offering  exhibitions  of  prints  and  litho- 
graphs, of  etchings  and  cartoons,  of  designs  and  book  plates,  of  the 
mechanical  processes  of  printing  and  a  score  more  of  subjects  related  to 
the  arts,  all  calculated  to  make  still  keener  the  desire  of  both  teacher  and 
taught  to  know  and  understand  the  beauties  thus  revealed. 

The  art  museums  have  lagged  behind  the  libraries  in  this  work  of 
education,  but  there  is  growing  evidence  to  prove  that  the  next  decade 
will  see  a  great  increase  in  the  teaching  done  in  their  halls  and  galleries. 
Some  of  the  museums  have  already  developed  collections  of  slides,  and 
have  made  it  possible  for  the  schools  to  borrow  these,  but  a  greater  work 
remains  to  be  done  in  the  actual  teaching,  both  of  class  instructors  and  of 
pupils,  before  the  museum  cases,  and  in  the  picture  galleries. 

One  other  force  should  be  mentioned  which  will  in  time  lend  to  the 
interest  of  drawing  in  the  higher  grades.  This  is  the  college  entrance 
examination  in  art.  For  many  years,  indeed  ever  since  the  introduction 
of  drawing  into  the  high  schools,  the    subject    of    drawing    has  labored 

^Burrage  and  Bailey,  "School  Sanitation  and  Decoration";  M.  Barnet,  "The  School  Beau- 
tiful,"  issued  by   State    Superintendent   of   Schools,    Wisconsin,    1907. 


76  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

under  the  serious  disadvantage  of  being  one  for  which  no  credit  could 
be  obtained  in  the  usual  college  examination.  At  first  glance  this  may 
not  seem  a  serious  disadvantage,  inasmuch  as  the  percentage  of  high 
school  students  who  enter  college  on  their  graduation  is  comparatively 
small.  Nevertheless,  it  has  been  the  fact  that  the  colleges  have  very 
largely  determined  what  the  high  school  courses  of  study  should  be,  and 
the  absence  of  drawing  in  their  list  of  requirements  has  acted  seriously 
to  interfere  with  the  election  of  this  subject  by  the  high  school  pupil. 

A  consideration  at  the  present  time  of  the  university  examination  of 
nine  leading  universities  shows  that  no  one  of  these  requires  drawing, 
but  that  seven  now  permit  it  to  be  elected."^  When  so  elected  it  counts 
upon  the  average  one-twelfth  of  the  number  of  points  required  for  en- 
trance. This  decided  gain  in  recognition  has  been  accomplished  within 
tiie  last  few  years.  As  the  elements  of  science  and  industry  creep  more 
and  more  into  education,  the  bars  to  drawing  will  undoubtedly  be 
dropped.  In  truth,  it  requires  but  small  gift  of  prophecy  to  warrant  the 
iissumption  that  the  future  will  see  the  technical  elements  of  the  subject 
required  for  scientific  college  courses,  and  elective  for  entrance  to  courses 
in  letters  and  the  arts.  The  consummation  of  this  idea,  now  so  earnestly 
desired  by  many  high  school  teachers,  will  see  the  final  step  achieved  in 
the  inclusion  of  drawing  in  the  general  educational  scheme.  Slowly  the 
subject  has  worked  its  way  upward  from  the  monitorial  school  of  "Mas- 
ter Fowle"  until  it  now  stands  knocking  at  the  university  gate.  That 
gate  is  opening,  slowly  perhaps,  but  surely. 

CONCLUSION. 

Those  who  have  followed  this  brief  history  can  scarcely  have  failed 
to  note  tiie  two  distinct  forces  which  from  the  very  beginning  have 
fwriNed  tiie  practice  of  the  schools.  On  the  one  hand  there  has  been  an 
insistent  economic  pressure  urging  the  development  of  skill  and  technical 
knowledge  useful  in  industry.  On  the  other  has  been  the  desire  for  beauty 
and  the  wish  to  teach  a  curriculum  giving  culture.  The  first  of  these 
forces  is  a  reflection  of  the  industrial  spirit  of  the  age ;  the  second,  an 
expression  of  that  idealism  unacknowledged,  even  unsuspected  by  its 
possessors,  but  none  the  less  an  inherent  element  of  American  character. 

-'See  H.  T.  Bailey,  Proceedings  Joint  Meeting  Eastern  Art  Teachers  and  Eastern  Manual 
Training   Associations,    iSJew   York,    1906. 


DHr/iLOPMENT   OF  ART  EDUCATION.  77 

Those  who  would  understand  the  work  in  the  arts  offered  in  the  schools 
of  the  United  States,  must  bear  in  mind  the  presence  of  these  two  quite 
different  influences,  the  shop  with  ideals  of  the  artisan,  preaching  exact- 
ness ;  the  studio  urging  freedom  and  individuality.  Beside  these  stands 
the  genetic-psychologist  with  reminders  as  to  the  necessity  of  adapting 
every  educational  process  to  the  child's  age,  stage  of  development,  inter- 
ests and  social  environment. 

Elements  of  strength  and  weakness  arise  out  of  this  situation ; 
strength,  in  that  the  work  is  kept  continually  fluid  and  responsive  to  the 
changing  conditions  which  affect  it,  weakness  in  that  mixed  motifs  confuse 
it.  The  pendulum  now  swings  one  way  and  now  another.  At  one  time 
the  advocates  of  technical  excellence  gain  through  some  strong  plea  for 
sound  and  simple  drawing  and  well  applied  design.  At  another,  those 
who  would  teach  appreciation,  frown  down  the  technical  practice  and 
offer  in  its  place  schemes  of  suave  composition,  subtle  color  analysis 
and  well  tuned  harmony.  Even  the  admonition  to  secure  personal  ex- 
pression, is  one  making  for  weakness  as  well  as  strength,  for  out  of  the 
straining  for  individuality  arise  shortsighted  attempts  to  effect  the 
impossible,  while  superficial  teaching  and  slipshod  results  offer  "self- 
expression''  as  a  first  excuse. 

There  is  throughout  the  work  of  the  schools  a  movement  toward 
greater  practicality.  The  industrial  spirit  is  on  the  rise  and  the  demand 
is  insistent  for  an  education  not  adapted,  as  was  that  of  the  earliest  schools, 
to  train  only  for  leadership,  but  designed  in  more  democratic  fashion  to 
train  each  boy  that  he  may  be  fitted  to  produce  his  best.  In  this  scheme 
the  arts  cannot  but  be  called  upon  to  play  a  most  important  role, — one 
in  which  "use"  will  stand  the  constant  cue.  But  the  very  democracy 
which  pleads  for  the  practical  in  education,  pleads  also  for  that  element 
which  shall  contribute  most  surely  to  the  pleasure  of  the  individual  and 
to  the  refinement  of  his  nature  and  surroundings.  Use  will  be  demanded, 
but  beauty  will  be  demanded  with  it.  The  work  of  the  schools  must  con- 
tinue to  deal  with  beauty  and  wnth  use,  or  better,  with  "beauty  in  use." 
So  concerning  itself,  it  cannot  fail  to  contribute  to  the  pleasure  of  those 
who  labor  to  create,  but  to  create  finely.  After  all,  as  Morris  has  observed, 
such  joy  in  creation,  such  pleasure  in  labor,  is  art  itself — its  very  essence. 


THE   PHILOSOPHY   OF   ELEMENTARY   ART   EDUCATION. 

By  Colin  A,  Scott. 

AS  every  one  knows,  it  is  the  task  of  philosophy  to  seek  for  new  truth 
rather  than  to  be  content  with  such  wisdom  as  may  lie  at  hand.  And 
yet  the  new  truth  always  grows  out  of  the  old,  and  at  first  can  be  nothing 
more  than  a  hypothetical  extension  of  what  is  already  well  known  to  every 
one.  In  its  search  for  new  truth  philosophy  cannot  soar  in  a  vacuum. 
Ideals  for  the  future  must  be  based  on  facts  of  the  present,  or  they  become 
veritable  trolls,  beckoning  mankind  to  destruction.  When,  on  the  other 
hand,  ideals  are  true,  we  find  them  actually  incorporated  in  everyday 
reality,  to  which  they  lend  a  new  and  unexpected  meaning. 

Art  education  in  America  is  far  from  offering  a  complete  and 
systematic  outline  to  the  observer.  Even  more  than  the  rest  of  our  educa- 
tional arrangements,  instruction  in  art  is  supposed  to  be  scrappy  and  incon- 
sequent. The  need  for  art  is  not  felt  profoundly  by  the  adult  community, 
and  it  is  often  looked  upon  as  a  luxury  or  a  fad  when  it  appears  within 
the  school.  This  attitude  has  been  unfortunately  reinforced  rather  than 
weakened  by  our  earliest  definite  attempts  at  education.  These  were 
imitated  largely  from  South  Kensington,  and  although  much  heralded  as 
the  salvation  of  our  industries  and  the  hope  of  culture,  they .  failed  to 
produce  large  results.  It  could  hardly  be  expected  that  material  and  ideas 
predigestcd  abroad  could  be  injected  with  success  in  a  country  whose 
physical  and  moral  atmosphere  is  so  different  in  character  and  scope. 

The  methods  by  which  these  ideas  were  promulgated  were  dry  and 
uninteresting.  Drawing  books,  with  painfully  graded  and  formal  exer- 
cises, from  straight  lines  through  oblongs  and  cubes  to  conventionalized 
lotus  flowers,  are  not  particularly  inspiring  to  the  young.  A  lady  who 
attended  school  some  twenty-five  or  thirty  years  ago  once  said  to  the 
present  writer:  "How  I  labored  with  pencil  and  rubber  to  get  on  past 
the  vertical  lines,  the  horizontal  lines,  the  oblique  lines,  the  squares,  the 
oblongs,  to  the  one  bright  object  on  a  distant  page — an  upright  tombstone 
with  little  marks  for  grass  around  the  base." 


8o  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Today,  in  the  best  sections  of  the  country,  we  are  far  beyond  bungling 
of  this  kind.  Art  education  has  broadened  out  so  that  it  has  at  least  over- 
flowed the  banks  of  the  text  book.  The  attempt  is  made  to  go  directly  to 
nature  for  inspiration.  The  child  study  movement  has  revealed  some- 
thing of  the  natural  interests  of  young  children,  and  it  is  seen  that  they 
draw  in  clay  as  well  as  in  line,  and  that  color  is  just  as  important  to  them 
as  form.  Kilns  for  firing  the  pottery  and  figurines  which  the  children 
delight  to  model  have  been  added  in  some  schools,  and  workshops  have 
been  started  in  which  stained  glass,  copper  and  brass  work,  applique,  and 
other  crafts  yield  an  interesting  field  for  the  application  of  design.  Borders 
for  rugs  which  are  never  intended  to  be  made  are  becoming  less  and  less 
the  fashion. 

One  of  the  most  solid  and  satisfactory  features  of  recent  progress 
has  been  the  way  in  which  the  teaching  of  art  has  been  related  to  many 
of  the  other  subjects  on  the  school  program,  and  back  through  these 
subjects  to  life  itself.  The  w"ork  in  language  and  literature  has  been 
reinforced  by  illustrated  drawings  and  paintings  made  by  the  children. 
The  talcs  of  Hiawatha,  Robinson  Crusoe  and  the  like  are  often  made 
realistic  by  Indian  villages,  wigwams,  huts,  etc.,  modeled  and  decorated 
in  true  artistic  spirit.  Geography  and  history  lend  themselves  delightfully 
to  all  kinds  of  graphic  and  plastic  representation.  Manual  training,  of 
course,  runs  naturally  into  art,  and  in  combination  as  manual  arts  these 
subjects  yield  a  great  variety  of  themes.  Some  of  these,  drawn  from  the 
home — dolls'  houses  or  single  parlors,  kitchens,  etc.,  or  others  showing 
street  scenes,  peddlers'  carts,  ice  cream  wagons,  street  cars — are  eagerly 
portrayed  by  childish  artists. 

However  ]:)rofitable  a  closer  study  of  the  material  and  nature  of  the 
subjects  chosen  would  be,  we  must  assume  that  the  reader  is  already 
familiar  with  these  details,  as  they  are  to  be  found  in  the  grades  below 
the  sixth  school  year,  or  that  he  may  inform  himself  by  reading  other 
chapters  in  this  book.  It  is  now  proposed  to  look  below  the  surface  in 
the  hope  of  discovering  the  educational  motif  which  is  responsible  for 
the  undoubted  success  of  this  class  of  work.  Many  causes  certainly 
co-operate  in  producing  this  success,  but  one  stands  out  with  considerable 
prominence,  viz..  the  dramatic  character  of  a  great  part  of  what  is  done. 
It  is  not  "art  for  art's  sake"  which  the  children  are  following,  but  art  for 
the   sake   of   realizing  more  vividlv   some   mental    imaee   or   some   social 


PHILOSOPHY  OF  ART  EDLCAriON.  8i 

situation  in  which  they  are  interested.  In  all  of  this  work  the  children 
tend  to  tell  a  story,  or  make  a  drama  or  play  out  of  their  models  or  their 
drawings,  and  the  best  teachers  usually  encourage  them  in  this  natural 
tendency. 

A  frank  recognition  of  this  fact,  and  an  understanding  of  the  possi- 
bilities of  development  in  this  direction,  would  do  much  toward  steadying 
our  progress  and  would  perhaps  lead  to  a  further  advance.  If.  then,  it  is 
really  a  play  that  children  are  making,  what  are  the  best  conditions  for  its 
production  ? 

It  would  seem  that  if  they  are  at  all  like  the  rest  of  playwrights  and 
stage  managers,  the  children  would  succeed  best  if  they  were  allowed  to 
co-operate  to  some  extent  with  each  other,  with  a  view  of  exhibiting  their 
work  to  a  larger  circle  of  appreciators,  particularly  of  their  own  age; 
that  is,  it  would  seem  like  a  waste  of  energy  and  interest  to  have  every 
child  in  the  room  make  a  peddler's  cart,  whether  out  of  cardboard  or 
drawn  in  the  flat,  when  the  day  for  that  has  arrived  upon  the  program. 
If  ever\'  child  makes  the  sam.e  thing,  he  has  no  one  to  co-operate  with, 
and,  what  is  still  W'Orse,  he  has  no  one  to  show  his  production  to.  It  will 
be  said  that  under  such  circumstances  an  exhibition  can  easily  be  arranged 
and  the  best  drawings  can  be  and  often  are  put  up  before  the  class  for 
their  criticism  and  admiration.  This,  however,  is  to  depart  entirely  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  children  in  the  grades  where  this  dramatic  art  work 
has  its  home. 

Where  all  do  the  same  thing  it  is  not  the  ideas  which  are  on  exhibi- 
tion. All  that  is  compared  is  a  variety  of  the  same  idea,  and  attention  is 
focused,  when  it  is  active  at  all.  on  the  technique  or  way  in  which  the  idea 
is  expressed.  That  this  may  be  done  occasionally  is  not  to  be  questioned, 
but  its  effect  as  a  routine  must  be  disappointing.  Imagine  our  feelings  as 
adults  if,  at  every  picture  gallery  we  visited,  each  artist  had  been  com- 
pelled to  portray  the  same  scene.  Such  an  exhibition  is  more  valuable  at 
the  end  of  an  artist's  education  than  at  the  beginning.  Then  matters  of 
technique  are  of  the  greatest  importance. 

If.  on  the  contrary,  individual  children  or  co-operative  groups  of 
children  engage  on  such  drawings  or  models  as  represent  plays  or 
dramas  they  themselves  originate,  they  are  anxious  to  have  their  produc- 
tions enacted  before  the  rest  of  the  class,  and  there  is  an  unavoidable  and 
welcome  variety  in  the  ideas  represented.     The  rest  of  the  class  is  inter- 


82  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

ested  in  seeing  and  hearing  what  their  fellows  produce.  I  say  hearing, 
because  if  we  are  really  dealing  with  plays,  the  figures  will  frequently 
need  to  talk  as  well  as  act.  They  will  need  to  be  pointed  to  or  moved 
around  and  treated  in  every  way  as  if  they  were  puppets  in  a  miniature 
drama.  Merely  to  be  placed  up  in  front  and  looked  at,  is  far  away  from 
the  feeling  of  the  childish  artist  and  playwright. 

Even  when  no  audience  is  provided  for  these  graphic  and  plastic 
plays,  a  child  frequently  manages  to  have  a  very  good  time  all  by  himself. 
Who  does  not  remember  with  pleasure  the  stories  he  read  when  a  boy, 
full  of  military  prowess  and  the  din  of  battle  ?  All  down  the  margins  of 
the  page,  on  the  flyleaf  and  elsewhere,  what  drawings  of  warriors,  castles 
and  guns !  Were  not  these  always  acting  figures  ?  Were  they  not  imag- 
ined to  be  moving,  and  frequently  continued  by  another  drawing  on  to 
the  next  page  of  the  action?  A  constant  stream  of  inner  speech  naturally 
accompanied  these  performances.  And  when  everything  was  working 
out  as  it  had  been  read,  and  sometimes  new  chapters  added,  one  turned 
again  to  the  story  for  fresh  inspirations  and  new  scenes  and  actions  to 
portray. 

But  why,  it  may  be  asked,  is  the  drama  particularly  important  for 
education  in  the  plastic  and  graphic  arts?  Granted  that  children  tend  to 
dramatize  their  drawings,  could  they  not  get  what  value  there  is  in  the 
dramatizing  directly,  or  in  connection  with  literature,  and  leave  the  time 
devoted  to  drawing  free  for  the  special  consideration  of  form  and  color? 
Is  not  dramatizing  in  connection  with  art  work  a  superfluous  or  accessory 
activity,  interesting  without  doubt  to  the  children,  but  not  particularly 
advantageous  to  their  development  in  art? 

The  opinion  of  the  present  writer  is  that  this  view  places  the  pyramid 
on  its  apex.  There  is  a  profound  relationship  between  the  drama  and  the 
graphic  and  plastic  arts,  and  one  that  is  shown  not  only  in  the  natural 
development  of  children's  interests,  but  in  the  historic  evolution  of  art 
as  a  whole.  In  this  evolution,  both  in  the  child  and  in  the  race,  the  drama 
is  fundamental,  and  the  arts  of  form  and  color  accessory.  This  does  not 
mean,  of  course,  that  the  accessory  stage  is  unimportant,  but  simply  that 
it  is  later  in  the  course  of  development,  and  may,  indeed,  just  because  of 
this  fact,  come  to  be  the  controlling  factor  in  its  particular  sphere.  The 
fore  l)rain  is  the  accessory  organ  of  the  spinal  system,  but  just  for  that 
reason  it  is  the  highest,  and  controls  what  is  below  it.     It  would  be  value- 


■;;;■ 

' 

I     THE  ROAO      j 


APPLIED   DESIGN,   ELEMENTARY   SCHOOLS,   ST.   LOUIS,   MO.,   AND    MONTCLAIR,   N.   J. 


PHILOSOPHY  OF  ART  EDUCATION.  85 

less  without  the  constant  presence  of  its  subordinate  organ.  The  arts  of 
form  and  color  in  a  similar  manner  have  grown  out  of  the  great  mother 
art  of  the  drama.  They  control  it  as  far  as  form  and  color  are  concerned, 
and  even  in  their  highest  and  most  independent  manifestations  contain 
dramatic  elements  from  which  they  have  sprung.  Not  only  is  every  pic- 
ture a  stage  scene,  but  it  is  selected  and  composed  with  a  view  to  some 
marked  and  emotional  effect.  If  figures  are  represented,  we  imagine  our- 
selves present  and  witness  or  take  part  in  the  action.  It  is  not  directly 
from  Hfe,  but  from  a  dramatic  view  of  life,  that  portraiture,  historical, 
genre,  and  even  landscape  painting  originate. 

The  difference  in  this  connection  between  children  and  adults  is  sim- 
ply this :  The  adult  can  imagine  and  perceive  his  drama  at  a  glance,  while 
the  child  needs  to  act  it  out  in  order  to  understand  it.  The  adult  is  used 
to  following  trains  of  images  or  massing  them  in  system,  and  keeping 
them  in  order  without  allowing  them  to  wander  too  far.  A  mood  can 
thus  be  sustained  in  the  adult  by  suitable  images  for  a  considerable  length 
of  time,  and  the  sustaining  of  a  mood  is  the  important  thing  for  all  forms 
of  art.  In  the  case  of  the  arts  addressed  to  the  eye,  the  individual  who  is 
susceptible  and  who  appreciates  the  arts  in  question,  does  so  because  he 
carries  about  with  him  the  psychic  material  for  the  formation  of  a  suitable 
mood.  The  picture,  piece  of  carving,  or  whatever  else  upon  which  his 
glance  falls,  appeals  to  him  because  it  awakens  a  whole  system  of  images 
and  the  mood  with  which  they  are  connected.  It  is  the  systematization  of  a 
mass  of  experiences  that  gives  significance  to  the  present  object,  at  which 
he  may  glance  but  for  a  moment.  This  object  becomes  a  symbol,  carry- 
ing into  his  consciousness  a  wealth  of  imagery  and  feeling  previously 
selected,  systematized,  and  essentially  dramatic  in  character. 

The  child,  on  the  contrary,  is  in  the  position  of  needing  to  build  up 
these  systems  of  imagery  by  slow  degrees.  They  are  not  at  first  con- 
densed and  implicated  with  each  other.  The  extensive  presentation  to 
his  mind  of  what  is  rapidly  and  almost  immediately  seized  by  the  adult 
is  absolutely  necessary  to  him.  His  perception  of  art  comes  to  him  much 
as,  at  an  earlier  age,  comes  his  perception  of  distance.  In  the  latter  case 
he  does  not  at  first  know  how  far  away  the  various  objects  are,  whose 
images  fall  upon  his  retina.  He  may  try  to  reach  the  moon  as  readily 
as  he  would  anything  else.  It  is  by  moving  towards  the  objects  around 
him,  noticing  their  figures  grow  larger  on  his  retina,  and  finally  by  touch- 


86'  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

ing-  them  that  he  gets  an  experience,  principally  through  his  muscles,  of 
how  far  away  they  are.  He  is  forced  to  keep  on  moving  nearer  and 
farther  away  from  objects  for  many  weeks,  and  even  months,  before  he 
can  see  distance  as  he  should.  In  this  process  of  learning,  no  one  can 
tell  him  when  to  stop,  but  he  will  stop,  nevertheless,  quite  naturally,  when 
he  has  experimented  sufficiently  to  rely  upon  his  past  experiences  and  see 
the  distance  which  is  before  him,  instead  of  reaching,  creeping,  or  walk- 
ing through  it. 

In  the  same  way,  although  more  slowly,  because  the  circumstances 
are  more  complicated  and  not  so  necessary  or  so  firmly  established  by 
hereditary  tendency,  does  the  child  need  to  talk  out  and  to  act  out  the 
experiences  which  are  represented  and  aroused  by  the  simplest  work  of 
art.  It  is  only  the  child  himself  that  can  tell  when  this  acting  out  is  no 
longer  necessary.  Not  until  a  system  of  images  and  corresponding  moods 
has  been  built  up,  so  that  it  can  come  at  a  glance,  w-ill  the  child  be  able  to 
see  in  the  picture  or  other  art  product,  what  is  really  there  for  his  appreci- 
ation. When  this  state  comes,  he  will  no  longer  wish  to  go  through  the 
longer  process.     It  will  seem  v/earisome  and  laborious  to  him. 

But  why,  it  may  be  asked  still  further,  does  the  child  of  an  early  age 
need  to  dramatize  in  order  to  get  a  system  of  images  ?  Why  will  not  talk- 
ing alone  suffice?  And  if  talking  is  sufficient,  may  it  not  be  wisest  to 
allow  the  teacher  to  do  the  most  of  this,  or  at  least  to  control  the  child's 
language,  so  that  the  ideas  which  the  teacher  has  pre-ordained  as  those 
belonging  to  real  art  appreciation  are  accepted  or  favored,  and  others 
ignored  or  inhibited? 

Any  one  Avho  has  watched  a  child's  natural  use  of  dramatizing  must 
have  been  convinced  that  this  was  carried  on  just  because  talking  was  not 
sufficient.  The  child  tries  to  think  out  his  various  conflicting  experiences 
and  unify  them  in  some  way  so  that  he  can  understand  them  properly, 
master  them,  and  either  dismiss  them  at  will  or  call  them  up  for  use.  His 
difficulty  in  making  this  synthesis  is  with  his  language,  both  of  the  inner 
imagined  kind  and  of  the  outer  spoken  variety.  It  is  not  rich  enough 
and  fluent  enough  to  keep  itself  going,  without  gaps  which  destroy  all 
unification  and  permit  the  inroad  of  foreign  material,  either  of  imagina- 
tion or  derived  from  some  chance  impression  of  the  outside  world.  Hence 
the  necessity  for  some  permanent  material  symbol. 

For  this  symbol  the  child  may  use  a  doll,  a  pebble,  a  match,  or  any- 


PHILOSOPHY  OF  ART  EDUCATION.  89 

thing  which  may  become  an  actor  in  a  Httlc  drama.  He  has,  for  example, 
observed  his  mother's  callers,  and  how  they  act  and  talk,  without  at  all 
understanding  the  performance  as  a  whole.  He  wishes  to  recount  it 
and  go  through  the  actions  again,  to  vary  them,  perhaps,  in  conformity 
with  the  spirit  of  the  occasion.  He  wishes,  in  a  word,  to  unify  his  expe- 
rience and  to  understand  it.  He  cannot  do  this  as  the  adult  does  by 
some  form  of  inner  conversation.  He  cannot  think  out  just  what  Mrs.  B. 
said  and  what  Mrs.  C.  said  in  reply.  But  he  places  a  couple  of  pebbles  on 
the  table  or  on  the  ground,  "This  is  Mrs.  B.  and  that  is  Mrs.  C."  He 
can  now  talk  en  for  Mrs.  B.,  and  when  he  comes  to  a  natural  stop,  Mrs.  C. 
is  patiently  waiting,  and  quietly  reminding  him  that  she  is  next  upon  the 
program.  His  concrete  figures  and  his  dramatizing  are  really  a  means 
for  holding  his  thoughts  together,  of  systematizing  them  in  masses  capable 
of  control.  In  the  same  way  Von  Moltke  controlled  the  Franco-Prussian 
War,  providing  himself  with  a  room  where  all  his  battalions  and  those 
of  the  enemy  were  arranged  in  the  form  of  toy  soldiers,  moved  here  and 
there  as  he  received  dispatches  from  the  field. 

If  this  is  really  the  essential  feature  of  the  young  child's  need  of 
dramatizing,  the  second  part  of  the  question,  namely.  Why  should  the 
teacher  not  dictate  the  talking  that  is  done  ? — almost  answers  itself.  Unless 
the  drama  corresponds  to  a  real  need  for  system,  the  talking  is  useless. 
The  child's  needs  cannot  be  generalized  to  any  great  extent.  They  will 
spring  up  differently  in  different  children  and  in  different  groups  of 
children.  If  the  teacher  can  find  out  what  these  needs  are,  she  may  then 
do  a  considerable  part  of  the  talking,  management  of  actors,  etc.,  with 
satisfaction  enough  on  the  part  of  the  children,  but  in  such  a  case  she  will 
not  be  dictating,  but  following  the  children's  deepest  desires.  The 
teacher,  however,  can  never  do  this  unless  free  invention  and  mutual  ex- 
pression are  permitted  in  the  class  room.  It  is  their  own  imagination  and 
their  own  dramas  which  the  children  need  to  develop,  and  which  they 
desire  to  express  to  each  other. 

The  whole  dramatic  and  unifying  needs  of  children  will  not.  of 
course,  be  met  by  the  plastic  and  graphic  arts,  but  there  are  certain 
features  of  these  inner  experiences  and  their  outer  environment  which  will 
be  most  capable  of  expression  in  drawing,  painting,  modeling,  and  con- 
structive work.  These  will  be  the  features  which  are  predominantly  visual 


90  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

and  which  are  most  susceptible  of  being  made  beautiful  or  striking  in 
form  and  color  as  well  as  expressive  in  meaning. 

It  would,  however,  be  quite  misleading  to  hope  that  children  below 
the  sixth  grade,  or  before  the  approach  to  puberty,  can  have  any  deep 
appreciation  of  the  beautiful  as  adults,  who  love  art,  are  able  to  under- 
stand it.  Children  care  practically  nothing  for  the  great  symbols  of 
beauty.  The  sky,  the  sea,  the  tender  landscape,  are  simply  objects  of  their 
environment,  taken  for  granted,  and  too  remote  from  their  interests  to  be 
even  mysterious.  They  may  pull  flowers  and  collect  pebbles,  play  in  the 
sea  and  count  the  stars,  but  no  deep  admiration  or  wonder  fills  their  souls. 
The  underlying  emotion  of  love  which  lends  its  color  to  all  feeling  for 
the  purely  beautiful  has  not  yet  been  awakened  within  them. 

There  is,  however,  an  emotion  to  which,  in  its  countless  varieties, 
children  are  even  more  susceptible  than  adults  and  which  gives  rise  to  a 
form  of  art  particularly  suited  to  children.  This  emotion  is  fear.  The 
art  by  which  it  is  controlled  and  radiated  is  known  in  its  deeper  forms 
as  the  grotesque,  and  in  its  lighter  manifestations  as  the  comic. 

Fear  is  an  emotion  which  it  is  desirable  to  eliminate  from  any  com- 
manding importance  in  the  childish  imagination,  but  it  cannot  be  so  elimi- 
nated by  simply  being  ignored,  sternly  reproved,  or  inhibited  by  the 
will.  There  is  an  evolutionary  ancestry  for  fear  in  the  human  race.  Fear 
has  been,  in  the  past,  a  means  of  safety  and  necessary  to  self-preservation. 
Even  courage  can  not  be  said  to  operate  without  a  background  of  fear. 
Fear  is  a  reflex  recognition  of  evil,  and  like  our  other  reflexes  must  be 
controlled  and  brought  into  a  larger  system  of  thoughts  and  feelings. 
The  child  must  not  be  left  in  the  isolation  of  fear,  but  must  be  given  the 
sense  of  protection  and  the  feeling  of  comfort  which  comes  at  once 
through  his  own  courage  and  the  saving  atonement  of  the  fellowship  of 
friends  and  companions,  both  great  and  small. 

Xor  can  the  attempt  to  prevent  fear  by  removing  all  stimulus,  be 
successful.  Make  the  liomc  and  the  school  abodes  of  perfect  delight  and 
remove  every  suggestion  of  fear,  and  it  will  still  appear  in  the  child's 
observation  of  life,  in  his  thoughts  and  dreams,  if  in  no  other  way.  He 
win  still  see  queer  shapes  in  the  dark.  He  will  still  want  to  hear  stories 
that  make  him  creep.  He  will  be  afraid  of  his  own  shadow,  if  there  is 
nothing  more  tangible  for  him  to  face.  \\^hat  the  child  needs,  is  not  to  be 
without  experience  of  fear  or  of  the  evil,  real  or  imagined,  which  gives 


u  ►^ 


PHILOSOPHY  OF  ART  EDUCATION. 


93 


rise  to  it,  but  to  know  how  to  meet  it,  how  to  dissolve  it  in  a  larger  and 
stronger  system  of  thoughts  and  feelings. 

A  great  part  of  the  child's  earlier  years  is  devoted  to  essays  in  cour- 
age about  what,  to  adults,  may  be  very  trifling  matters.  When  his  mental 
processes  are  not  strong  enough  to  issue  victoriously  over  his  fears, 
and  combine  them  into  larger  protective  systems,  they  become  morbid 
and  may  be  continued  into  adult  life  as  an  uncontrollable  feeling,  the 
origin  of  which  may  be,  and  usually  is,  quite  forgotten.  Of  such  a  char- 
acter is  the  often  morbid  fear  of  rats  and  mice,  of  high  buildings,  of 
falling  from  a  height,  of  open  places,  of  trees  and  woods,  fear  of  society 
or  self-consciousness,  exaggerated  fear  of  robbers,  of  death,  or  of  soine 
special  disease,  of  fire,  of  sharp  points  and  of  almost  every  object  or 
situation  that  can  impress  unfavorably  a  child  of  early  years. 

The  seeds  of  these  uncontrollable  fears  have  nearly  always  been 
sown  before  the  child  reaches  the  fifth  and  sixth  grades,  but  they  grow 
in  later  years  and  often  give  rise  to  great  systems  of  worries  and  anxieties, 
which  may  sap  the  very  life  and  happiness  of  the  unfortunate  victim. 
Cures  in  later  life,,  such  as  are  ofifered  by  Christian  Science  and  other 
forms  of  mental  healing,  are  never  so  satisfactory  as  the  proper  pre- 
vention or  treatment  of  tl-.ese  fears  in  early  childhood. 

A  great  part  of  our  fears,  even  in  adult  life,  are  visual  in  character. 
Even  when  they  are  intangible  and  imaginary,  they  are  frequently  visual- 
ized and  often  personified  in  visual  form.  The  adult  or  adolescent  fears 
of  death  as  the  rider  on  the  dark  horse,  evil,  as  the  devil  in  bodily  form, 
the  pestilence  that  walketh  at  noontime,  impress  the  imagination  largely 
because  of  their  visual  character.  To  examine  them  resolutely  and  to 
determine  the  actual  conditions  of  their  existence  is  to  remove  their  par- 
alyzing efifect.  To  minds  untrained  in  deep  reflection,  and  the  inner 
dramas  of  the  soul,  this  perhaps  can  never  be  done  without  some  concrete 
dramatic  representation  which  appeals  directly  to  the  eye.  The  religion 
of  the  middle  ages  knew  how  to  produce  this  eflFect,  not  only  in  the  mystery 
plays,  but  in  grotesques  of  a  purely  plastic  character.  One  may  see  among 
the  carvings  of  the  ancient  gothic  cathedrals  excellent  examples  of  the 
serious  grotesque.  The  devil,  for  example,  is  modeled  with  all  the  ugli- 
ness suitable  for  this  personification  of  evil,  but  he  is  held  in  check  by 
the  forces  of  righteousness.  His  very  presence  on  the  walls  of  the 
church  indicates  his  captivity  and  powerlessness  to  compass  any  absolute 


94  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

and  ultimate  wrong.  The  evil  shape  is  seen  and  faced  and  the  proper 
antagonists  of  this  evil,  angels,  apostles,  saints,  martyrs  and  the 
visualized  person  of  the  Godhead,  are  made  manifest  to  the  eye  and  to 
the  imagination.  A  visual  drama  is  enacted  in  which  the  final  act  of 
reconcilement  and  atonement  defeats  victoriously  the  fears  that  have  been 
aroused.  The  devil  has  been  brought  into  a  larger  system  of  thought 
and  feeling  and  his  dominion  of  fear  yields  to  the  beautiful  and  the 
strong. 

Sometimes  this  strength  and  beauty,  instead  of  being  represented 
by  separate  figures,  may  be  combined  with  the  terrible  and  fearful  in 
one  single  object.  In  place  of  representing  the  dragon  from  the  his- 
torical and  typically  Christian  point  of  view  as  being  overcome  by  St. 
George  or  some  other  hero,  Japanese  art,  for  example,  delights  to  show 
the  dragon  as  a  solitary  and  independent  shape,  but  conquered  in  every 
scale  and  fold  by  the  harmony  of  beautiful  workmanship  and  exquisite 
design.  The  object  itself,  although  containing  some  stimuli  to  fear,  now 
becomes  beautiful,  obedient  to  law,  a  part  of  a  larger  system,  subject 
to  reason  and  a  calm  imagination.  If  the  dragon,  however,  should  be 
so  flattered  as  to  lose  his  elements  of  fear,  the  representation  would  be 
less  perfect  as  a  grotesque,  and  we  feel  that  its  place  would  be  better 
filled  by  a  bird  or  a  flower. 

The  dragon  and  especially  the  devil  are  grotesques  that,  on  the 
whole,  belong  more  naturally  to  the  adult  world  than  to  the  life  of  little 
children.  The  particular  fears  they  represent  do  not  spring  up  without 
considerable  stimulation  before  the  approach  to  puberty.  The  law,  how- 
ever, of  the  transformation  of  fears  by  means  of  art,  applies  to  children 
in  the  same  way  as  in  the  cases  we  have  analyzed,  although  the  objects 
feared  are  likely  to  be  different. 

With  a  view  of  finding  out  what  some  of  these  objects  might  be,  the 
present  writer  a  few  years  ago  went  into  a  number  of  grades  below 
the  seventh,  and  began  to  talk  about  things  he  used  to  be  afraid  of,  when 
he  was  a  boy.  The  subject  was  unusually  interesting  to  the  children 
and  they  started  to  tell  first  about  what  they  used  to  be  afraid  of  and 
very  soon  of  what  were  their  present  fears.  They  had  a  good  time 
laughing  over  their  fears,  and  no  one  would  have  thought  for  a  moment, 
who  observed  them,  that  their  real  fears  were  being  deepened  or  strength- 
ened.    After  the  fears  that  could  readily  be  told  about  were  expressed. 


APPLIED   DESIGN',    SEVENTH    AND    EIGHTH    YEARS,   ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS,    NEW    YORK,    N.    Y. 


PHILOSOPHY  OF  ART  EDUCATION.  97 

they  were  asked  to  make  drawings  or  paintings  of  things  they  were 
afraid  of  and  that  could  be  shown  better  in  this  way  than  by  speech. 
A  number  of  very  vivid  expressions  ami  dramatic  drawings  were  the 
result.  Among  these  figured  fires  and  burning  houses,  burglars,  lonely 
rooms,  engines,  high  places,  cliffs,  etc.,  dark  woods,  rats,  snakes,  Ijears, 
horses,  elephants,  a  few  ghosts,  and  sometimes  things  they  saw  at  night, 
but  could  not  tell  what  they  were. 

The  comic  is  a  form  of  art  closely  related  to  the  grotesque,  and.  like 
it,  connected,  although  more  remotely,  with  the  emotion  of  fear.  In  fact, 
as  soon  as  a  grotesque  loses  a  little  of  its  seriousness  it  becomes  comical 
and  awakens  laughter.  Not  only  mo<lerns  laugh  at  the  Gothic  grotesques, 
but  it  would  seem  likely  that  even  in  the  Middle  Ages,  in  the  presence  of 
their  fellows,  and  when  confidence  was  dominant  and  safety  assured,  the 
beholders  may  have  laughed  at  the  uncouth  antics  of  the  devil. 

We  see  this  in  a  good  deal  and  perhaps  all  of  the  genuine  laughters 
of  the  present  day.  A  miomentary  feeling  of  attack,  either  on  the  person 
himself  or  on  some  of  his  interests  or  impersonations  (as  in  a  story), 
with  the  immediate  consciousness  of  absolute  safety,  seem  to  be  the  neces- 
sary conditions  for  laughter.  Tickling,  for  example,  produces  laughter 
only  under  certain  restrictions.  One  cannot  tickle  himself  and  produce 
laughter.  A  girl  laughs  when  she  is  tickled  by  one  of  the  opposite  sex 
much  more  readily  than  if  her  sister  or  intimate  friend  attempts  it.  But 
even  here,  if  the  individual  of  the  opposite  sex  is  too  strange,  an  over- 
balance of  fear  is  aroused,  with  a  sense  of  propriety,  and  no  laughter 
occurs.  Other  forms  of  attack  or  threatened  disturbance,  as  mere 
physical  approach,  pointing  for  example,  may  stimulate  laughter.  Good 
feeling,  fellowship,  confidence,  must  predominate,  but  some  shock  of  dis- 
turbance seems  necessary  to  make  these  felt  as  conditions  of  laughter 
and  the  comic. 

Plastic  and  more  particularly  graphic  arts  are  capable  of  arousing  the 
sense  of  the  comic  and  exciting  the  tendency  to  laughter.  This  i?  particu- 
larly true  of  children.  They  love  "funny  pictures."  and  no  one  can 
observe  the  motifs  of  these  pictures  without  noticing  that  there  is  always 
a  person  or  an  object  or  animal  that  children  are  called  upon  to  respect, 
or  are  likely  to  stand  in  some  slight  fear  of.  that  is  taken  as  the  butt 
of  the  humor.  At  present  in  America  the  Sunday  newspaper  seems  to 
monopolize  this  part  of  the  children's  emotional  and  artistic  education. 


^  ART  EDUCATION  IX  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

and  by  no  means  in  the  best  interests  of  either  art  or  emotion.  The  comic 
•does  not  need  to  be  vulgar,  or  immoral,  but,  until  professional  education 
-sees  the  necessity  not  merely  of  scoring  these  newspaper  drawings,  but  of 
putting  something  better  in  their  place,  it  is  likely  that  their  crude  effec- 
tiveness, based  on  a  sound  practical  psychology,  will  continue  to  hold  the 
attention  of  the  young. 

A  w'ord  must  be  said,  in  closing,  of  the  higher  stages  of  art  and  the 
sense  of  the  beautiful  that  lie  beyond  the  seventh  grade  and  become  pos- 
sible only  W'ith  the  approach  of  adolescence.  The  limits  of  this  chapter 
will  prevent  anything  further  than  the  slightest  suggestions. 

The  sense  of  the  beautiful  as  such,  as  distinguished  from  the  gro- 
tesque and  comic,  is  in  all  probability  based  on  sexual  emotion  and  uncon- 
scious development  of  love.  Not  until  these  feelings  appear  can  the  great 
symbols  of  beauty  really  appeal  to  the  soul  with  depth  and  power.  Gym- 
nastics in  balance  of  color  and  form,  mere  cold  exercises  in  design,  may 
be  made  the  subject  matter  of  a  course  of  study,  but  not  until  color  and 
form  are  related  to  an  emotional  content  do  they  have  any  real  significance. 

Landscape,  the  highest  of  all  the  graphic  arts,  has  no  meaning  to 
little  children.  That  they  love  to  run  on  the  green  grass  or  play  in  the 
sea  is  no  proof  of  a  sense  of  the  beautiful.  The  Perr}-  pictures  may 
possibly  give  them  some  information,  but  certainly  leave  them  without 
the  slightest  aesthetic  thrill.  Not  until  the  youth  knows  by  experience 
what  tenderness  is,  can  he  feel  the  tenderness  of  the  dawn.  Neither  pas- 
sionate beauty  itself,  nor  the  austere  and  perfect  dream  that  seems  to  still 
all  passion  because  it  rises  out  of  it,  can  afifect  the  individual  who  has  no 
passion  in  his  heart.  To  appreciate  a  beautiful  w-ork  of  art.  Nature  must 
have  echoed  back  to  us  the  emotions  that  we  have  felt. 

This  sensitiveness  to  beauty  develops  by  stages.  Its  first  appearance 
is  not  marked  by  a  love  of  landscape  or  decorative  design.  Earlier  than 
these  comes  the  appreciation  of  personal  adornment.  This  is  already 
present  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades,  and  quite  marked  in  the  high 
school.  The  boy  begins  to  care  rather  specially  for  the  color  of  his  tie 
and  shines  his  lx)ots  without  being  told  to.  The  girl  wishes  to  wear  rings 
if  her  hands  are  fine,  to  laugh  if  her  teeth  are  good,  to  smile  if  a  dimple 
shows.  These  may  be  crude  indications  of  the  love  of  the  beautiful,  but 
they  are  genuine,  and  they  begin  where  the  history  of  the  race  began — 
in  the  interest  in  the  human  bodv,  the  concealment  of  its  deficiencies  and 


PHILOSOPHY  OF  ART  EDUCATION.  99 

the  enhancement  of  its  perfections.  Clothes,  as  every  anthropologist 
knows,  were  not  invented  as  a  protection  from  the  weather,  but  as  an 
adornment  of  the  person,  and  principally  for  the  purpose  of  attracting  and 
controlling  individuals  of  the  opposite  sex.  Connected  with  personal 
adornment  at  our  present  stage  of  civilization  would  naturally  be  found 
interest  in  jewelry,  in  lace  making,  in  the  designing  of  fabrics  to  be  worn, 
and  in  costumes  of  different  lands  and  times.  A  course  of  study  both 
practical  and  interesting  could  easily  be  devised  along  these  lines. 

From  this  centre  radiates  naturally  an  artistic  interest  in  the  home, 
and  particularly  in  the  parlor  or  drawing  room  as  a  stage  setting  for 
personal  charms.  The  furniture,  studied  as  a  background  for  human 
beings,  offers  some  possibilities  of  romance  to  the  youth.  The  history 
of  fine  furniture  and  the  appreciation  of  the  more  artistic  forms  increase 
rather  than  diminish  this  romance.  Certainly  the  need  is  great  enough 
in  America  that  some  taste  be  applied  to  our  household  furnishings.  But 
art  instruction  until  recently  left  such  matters  to  chance,  content  to 
present  ideals  of  high  art  or  the  flotsam  and  jetsam  of  desiccated  gram- 
mars of  design,  without  seeing  that  the  ideals  were  effective,  or  the 
grammar  one  used  in  daily  life. 

The  importance  of  some  such  education  for  industry  and  for  the 
refinement  of  social  life  is  hardly  to  be  gainsaid.  At  present  our  manu- 
facturers throw  poor,  inartistic,  machine  made  goods  upon  the  market, 
to  be  bought  by  an  undiscriminating  public  without  imagination  or  fore- 
sight to  demand  anything  better.  A  higher  standard  of  taste  as  applied 
to  things  commonly  bought  and  sold  would  add  greatly  not  only  to  the 
value  of  our  manufactures  and  our  material  resources,  but  to  the  pleasure 
and  dignity  of  our  lives. 

Education  is  not  without  some  consciousness  of  the  practical  economic 
value  of  education  in  art,  and  many  of  the  best  courses  of  study  are 
oriented  in  this  direction.  What  has  been  lacking,  not  only  for  pupils  at 
this  age,  but  in  the  earlier  }.ears.  is  a  recognition  of  the  psychological 
tendencies  and  social  motives  which  make  art  significant  to  the  young. 
No  matter  how  correct  our  adult  convictions  may  be,  unless  we  are 
skillful  enough  to  penetrate  to  the  real  forces  at  work  in  those  we  are 
teaching,  we  will  always  fail  in  producing  results  that  last.  It  is  the 
child  at  the  time  we  are  dealing  with  him  that  calls  for  our  immediate 
effort.      The  eternal  "ought"  can  never  aim  without  the  actual  "is." 


CHILD  STUDY  IN  RELATION  TO  ELEMENTARY 
ART  EDUCATION. 

By  Earl  Barnes. 

THE  study  of  a  passive  child  can  produce  little  that  is  of  value  for 
educational  practice.  It  is  only  when  he  expresses  himself  that  we 
catch  glimpses  of  his  inner  life.  Hence  his  art  impulses  must  be  studied 
through  things  that  he  admires,  and  still  more,  through  things  that  he 
makes.  Drawings  probably  give  us  our  best  approach  to  the  develop- 
ment of  these  art  interests,  and  in  this  study  we  shall  confine  ourselves 
mainly  to  drawing  and  color,  entirely  neglecting  music  and  stories. 

In  drawing,  we  have  a  form  of  self-expression  that  yields  itself 
to  study  better  than  any  other,  except  written  speech.  This  is  because  it 
is  self-recording,  and  so  becomes  a  permanent  photograph  of  the  child's 
m.ind  which  the  student  can  refer  to,  again  and  again,  for  purposes  of 
comparison  or  generalization.  It  can  even  be  claimed  that  drawing  has 
one  advantage  over  written  speech,  since  it  can  be  used  with  children 
some  years  before  they  begin  to  write. 

In  consequence  of  the  availability  of  drawings  for  study,  we  have 
a  wealth  of  investigations  dealing  with  ihe  subject  from  almost  every 
point  of  view.  The  latest  arid  most  comprehensive  study  is  that  by  Dr. 
George  Kerschensteiner,  which  appeared  in  1905.^  During  a  period  of 
seven  years  as  school  inspector  in  Munich,  the  author  worked  over  three 
hundred  thousand  children's  drawings.  Many  of  these  were  subjected 
to  careful  examination,  and  from  time  to  time  special  test  exercises  were 
set  and  the  results  were  analyzed  and  tabulated.  The  work  indicates  only 
slight  acquaintance  with  earlier  studies  in  the  field,  but  its  independent 
conclusions  are  even  more  valuable  on  this  account.  Many  hundreds  of 
the  childien's  drawings  are  reproduced  in  the  volume,  both  in  black  and 
white  and  in  colors. 

Just  before  this  work  was  printed  Dr.  Siegfried  Levinstein  brought 

'George    Kerschensteiner,    "Die    Entwickelung  der  zeiclinerischen  Begabung."  Munich,  1905. 


UI^nVERSlTY  OP  CALIFORNIA 
«A^  BARBARA  COLLEC3B  UBRA^X 


102  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

cut  his  extended  study  on  drawings  made  by  school  children."  With  the 
support  of  Professor  Lamprecht,  the  author  has  collected  a  great  number 
of  drawings  made  by  school  children,  to  illustrate  the  story  of  "Hans- 
Guck-in-die-Luft",  and  he  has  also  summarized  earlier  studies.  The  vol- 
ume is  richly  illustrated  with  reproductions  of  the  children's  drawings, 
and  there  is  an  extended  bibliography. 

Among  earlier  German  works.  Professor  Wilhelm  Preyer's  well- 
known  study  on  his  son'  is  still  useful,,  especially  in  connection  with  the 
development  of  interest  in  color.  There  are  less  important  studies  in 
German  by  Gotze*  and  Pappenheim.^ 

Among  the  works  by  French  students  Perez's  "L'Art  et  la  Poesie 
chez  TEnfant"*  still  remains  a  classic.  Unlike  the  German  works,  this 
is  based  on  the  careful  study  of  a  few  children,  and  deals  rather  with 
art  appreciation  than  with  creative  work.  In  his  "First  Three  Years  of 
Childhood"'  the  same  author  has  recorded  valuable  observations  from  the 
same  field.  In  various  articles  and  reviews  Alfred  Binet'  has  given  us 
the  benefit  of  his  interesting  and  suggestive  ways  of  thinking  about  chil- 
dren's drawings.  Compayre,  in  his  "L'Evolution  Intellectuelle  et  Morale 
de  TEnfant,"'"  ofiers  many  suggestions  of  value  for  this  chapter.  Passy" 
has  also  given  us  some  valuable  notes.  One  of  the  earliest  quantitative 
studies  made  on  children's  drawings  was  that  by  Ricci"  in  Italy. 

In  England  one  of  the  closest  students  of  children's  drawings  has 
been  Ebenezer  Cooke.  He  has  spoken  and  written  extensively  on 
the  subject,  and  his  views  have  largely  influenced  work  in  the  schools." 
Professor  James  Sully's  chapters  on  art  development  in  his  "Studies  of 
Childhood'"^  have  been  widely  read  and  copied.  A  little  volume  by  the 
late  inspector  of  schools,  T.  G.  Rooper,  reprinted  in  America  as  "Draw- 

-Siegfried  Levinstein,   "Kindeizeichnungen   bis  zuni    14   Lebensjahr."   Leipzig,    1905. 

^Wilhelm  Preyer,  "The  Mind  of  the  Child,"  translated  by  W.  H.  Brown,  2  vols.  New 
York,   1889. 

■•Karl  Gotze,  "Das  Kind  als  Kiinstler."      Hamburg,    1898. 

^Karl  Pappenheim,  "Bemerkungen  iiber  Kinderzeichnungen,"  Zeitschrift  ftir  Pedagogische 
Psychologie.     March,    1891. 

"Bernard    Perez,    "L'Art   et   la   Poesie   chez  I'Enfant."     Paris,   1888. 

'Idem,  "First  Three  Years   of  Childhood."  Translated  by  Christie.     New  York,   1888. 

".A.lfred  Binet,   "Interpretation   des   Dessins."   Revue   Philosophique,  December,   1890. 

"Gabriel  Compayre,  "The  Intellectual  and  Moral  Development  of  the  Child."  Translated 
by  Wilson.     2  vols.     New  York,    1896. 

^"Jacques  Passy,  "Notes  sur  les  Dessins  des  Enfants."  Revue  Philosophique,  December, 
1891. 

"Carrado  Ricci,  "L'Arte  dei  Bambini."  Bologna,  1887.  Part  of  this  study  is  translated 
in   the   Pedagogical    Seminary.    October,    1895. 

'^Ebenezer  Cooke,  "Art  Teaching  and  Child  Nature."  Journal  of  Education,  London,  De- 
cember.   T885,   and   January,    1886. 

"James  Sully,   "Studies  of  Childhood."     New  York,   1895. 


CHILD  STUDY  AND  ART  EDUCATION.  105 

ing  in  Primary  Schools,""  is  based  directly  on  the  studv  of  children,  and 
has  also  had  large  influence  in  the  teaching  of  drawing  in  England. 
Miss  Drury's  study  on  what  children  think  pretty,"  Miss  Sophie  Part- 
ridge's extended  studv  on  children's  picture  writing,"  and  Miss  Lena 
Partridge's  examination  of  the  way  children  draw  men  and  women"  are 
w^ell  known.  In  various  issues  of  "Child  Life"  during  1906-1907  Miss  M. 
E.  Findlay  discussed  "Design  in  the  Art  Training  of  Young  Children'"* 
from  the  point  of  view  of  children's  tastes. 

In  America  we  have  a  great  number  of  studies  on  this  subject.  Dr. 
Frederick  Burk's  "The  Genetic  versus  the  Logical  Order  in  Drawing"" 
is  an  admirable  summary  of  work  done,  and  gives  a  definite  application 
to  teaching.  Professor  J.  Mark  Baldwan'"  has  analyzed  certain  steps  in 
the  developm.ent  of  drawing  with  his  usual  philosophical  thoroughness. 
Dr.  Herman  T.  Lukens"  in  "A  Study  of  Children's  Drawings  in  Early 
Years"  has  given  us  one  the  best  summaries  so  far  made.  Mrs.  Mait- 
land"  has  investigated  the  question  as  to  what  subjects  school  children 
wish  to  draw.  Professor  A.  B.  Clark''  has  examined  children's  attitude 
toward  perspective  problems.  In  his  "Notes  on  Children's  Drawings," 
Professor  Elmer  E.  Brown'*  has  published  and  interpreted  four  rather 
extended  studies  on  individual  children. 

One  of  the  earliest  attempts  to  interpret  large  groups  of  children's 
drawings  was  made  by  the  writer  in  1893.''  I"  ^'^  Studies  in  Educa- 
tion'" he  has  analyzed  an  extended  collection  of  pictures  made  by  children 
and  has  printed  another  version  of  Miss  Drury's  study"  on  what  chil- 

'•T.   G.    Rooper,    "Drawing  in   Primary   Schools."     New    York.    1894. 

^'^Mary  Urury,  "Children's  Attitude  Towards  the  Beautiful."  University  Extension  Jour- 
nal, London,  December,  1891. 

'"Sophie   Partridge,    "Children's   Drawings."     The    Paidologist,  London,  November,  1904. 

I'Lena  Partridge,  "Children's  Drawings  of  Men  and  Women."  Barnes'  Studies  in  Edu- 
cation, Vol.   II,  pp.    163-179. 

"M.  E.  Findlay,  "Design  in  the  Art  Training  of  Young  Children."  Child  Life,  London, 
1906-7. 

"Frederick  Burk,  "The  Genetic  versus  the  Logical  Order  in  Drawing."  Pedagogical  Semi- 
nary, September.   1902. 

^"Janies  M.  Baldwin,  "Mental  Development  in  the  Child  and  the  Race."  New  York,   1897. 

"Herman  T.  Lukens,  "A  Study  of  Children's  Drawings  in  the  Early  Years."  Pedagogical 
Seminary,  October,   1896. 

^-Louise  Maitland,  "What  Children  Draw  to  Please  Themselves."  Inland  Educator,  Sep- 
tember,   1895.  ,      _      .. 

-'.\.  B.  Clark,  "The  Child's  Attitude  Toward  Perspective  Problems."  Barnes  Studies 
in  Education,   Vol   I,   pp.   283-294.  «      .. 

-*EImer  E.  Brown,  "Notes  on  Children's  Drawings."  University  of  California  Studies.  Vol. 
II,  No.    I. 

==Earl  Barnes,  ".\  Study  in  Children's  Drawings."  Pedagogical  Seminary,  December, 
1893. 

^Idem,  "Studies  in  Education."  2  vols.  Stanford  University  and  Philadelphia.  1897, 
1902. 

^''Idem,    "The    Prettiest    Thing,"    Studies    in    Education,    vol.    II,    pp.    180-194- 


i04  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

dren  think  pretty.  Professor  jNI.  V.  O'Shea"  has  an  analytical  study  in 
the  Proceedings  of  the  National  Education  Association.  The  records 
of  infancy  kept  by  Shinn"",  Moore'"  and  Hogan''  devote  much  space  to 
the  efforts  made  by  children  to  express  themselves  in  drawing  and  to 
the  development  of  art  appreciation.  In  "A  Little  Girl  Among  the  Old 
Masters'"^  Willian  Dean  Howells  has  recorded  the  steps  in  the  develop- 
ment of  a  child  living  in  the  midst  of  European  art  galleries. 

These  varied  studies  show  beyond  all  question  that  children  pass 
through  successive  stages  in  their  appreciation  of  art  and  in  their  rela- 
tion to  artistic  creation.  Fragmentary  and  incomplete  as  the  results  are, 
they  have  already  had  a  large  influence  on  art  instruction,  especially  with 
little  children ;  and  in  the  future  the  more  perfect  study  of  children  must 
inevitably  determine  the  ways  in  which  we  shall  help  them  to  an  under- 
standing and  an  expression  of  the  beautiful. 

From  an  examination  of  the  many  stvidies  that  have  been  made  on 
infancy  it  seems  clear  that  the  first  few  months  of  a  child's  life  are  dis- 
tinguished above  all  else  by  extreme  activity  and  by  fragm.entariness 
of  interest."*'  A  baby's  waking  hours  are  fully  occupied  and  he  turns 
restlessly  from  one  thing  to  another,  eagerly  gathering  a  mass  of  unre- 
lated experience.'^  All  observers  agree  in  noting  a  broken  interest  at  this 
time  in  striking  sensory  impressions,  beginning  when  the  child  is  but  a 
few  days  old.''^  He  turns  with  evident  pleasure  towards  rays  of  light, 
brightly  colored  objects  and  glittering  things.'"  Mobility  and  glitter  seem 
more  attractive  to  him  than  color;  and  objects  of  daily  life,  such  as  a 
mother's  dress,  seem  to  exercise  a  more  compelling  power  than  any  other 
artistic  products. 

White  is  probably  the  most  attractive  color  at  this  time,  and  a  piece 
of  newspaper  will  hold  the  attention  as  well  as  a  handsomely  colored  toy, 
especially  if  the  baby  is  allowed  to  do  something  with  it.'^     By  the  time 

=*M.  y.  O'Shea,  "Children's  Expression  Through  Drawing."  Proceedings  National  Edu- 
cation  Association,    1894,   mi.    loi  5-1023. 

-■'Milicent  W.  Shinn,  "Notes  on  the  Development  of  a  Child."  University  of  California 
Studies.    Herkeley,    1899. 

•^"Kathleen  C.  Moore,  "The  Mental  Development  of  a  Child."  The  Psychological  Review 
October,    1896.  ' 

•'■'Louise    Ilogan,    "A   Study   of   a   Child."     New   York,    1898. 

■''=  William  Dean  Howells,   "A  Little  Girl  Among  the  Old  Masters."     New   York,    1876. 

"Moore,   p.   20.     Compayre,  pt.   I,    p.   63. 

^*F.  B.  Dresslar,  "A  Morning's  Observation  of  a  Baby."  Pedagogical  Seminary,  Decem- 
ber,   1901. 

"Shinn,  "Development  of  a  Child,"  Part   I.  p.    10. 

■■'"Shinn,   '"Development   of  a   Child."      Part  I,   p.    10. 

^•Rufus  E.  Marsden,  "A  Study  of  the  Early  Color  Sense."  Psychological  Review,  Janu- 
ary,   1903,    p.    39. 


CHILD  STUDY  AND  ART  EDUCATION.  107 

they  are  a  year  old,  many  children  show  an  interest  in  looking  at  pictures, 
and  six  months  later  they  can  pick  out  animals  they  know  or  photo- 
graphs of  father  or  mother."*  Hence  by  this  time  visual  images  must  be 
pretty  well  formed  in  their  minds.  The  whole  subjective  life  is,  how- 
ever, so  undifferentiated  that  admiration  can  hardly  exist  aside  from  the 
general  mass  of  pleasurable  feelings. 

Thus  until  the  age  of  two  years  there  is  little  in  the  way  of  art 
activity  to  record.  If  the  child  is  given  pencil  and  paper  he  may  rub 
them  together  as  he  might  rub  any  articles  together  that  are  handed  to 
him.  When  he  seem%to  be  drawing  he  is  probably  imitating  the  action 
of  his  elders,  just  as  he  does  when  he  plays  at  writing  letters.  If  mean- 
ing appears,  well  and  good ;  but  he  is  merely  imitating  the  action  that  he 
sees  and  not  the  representative  effort  that  lies  behind  it.  His  interest  is 
in  the  act,  not  in  the  product. 

About  the  age  of  two,  however,  the  child  begins  to  have  a  distinct 
pleasure  in  the  products  of  his  rubbing.  His  drawing  is  still  only  a 
scrawl,  but  he  has  a  creative  rather  than  a  merely  imitative  attitude 
towards  it.  Professor  Baldwin  has  analyzed  the  steps  in  scribble  devel- 
opment with  great  thoroughness.  The  angular  straight  lines  give  way 
about  the  age  of  two  years  to  curves,  lateral  movements  being  preferred 
to  vertical  movements.  About  the  twenty-seventh  month  a  sense  of  con- 
nection between  what  was  visually  in  the  child's  own  consciousness  and 
the  movement  of  his  own  hand  or  pencil  springs  into  existence.  Tracery 
imitation  begins.''  Ebenezer  Cooke  finds  in  these  early  scribbles  a 
tendency  toward  elliptical  forms  on  which  he  bases  far-reaching  educa- 
tional conclusions.*"  Professor  Brown  has  also  pointed  out  the  predomi- 
nance of  motor  impulses  in  this  early  work,  though  recognizing  the  steady 
attempt  to  relate  motor  and  visual  images ;"  and  Professor  Sully  speaks 
of  drawing  at  this  period  as  largely  "imitative  play  action."**  . 

All  students  of  childhood  agree  in  recognizing  that  the  images  which 
the  child  seeks  to  express  at  this  early  age  are  already  within  his  mind 
when  the  drawing  begins.**    The  operation  is  from  within  outward  and 

^Moore,  p.   112.     Shinn,  p.   71. 

^"Baldwin,    "Mental   Development."   p.   81. 

*°Cooke,  "Art  Teaching  and  Child  Nature."  Journal  of  Education,  London,  December,  1885. 

"Brown,   "Notes  on  Children's  Drawings,"  p.    59. 

♦^Sully,  "Studies  of  Childhood,"  p.  298. 

*^Cooke,  "In  Child  Life,"  London,  1891,  p.  77. 

Brown,  "Notes  on  Children's  Drawings,"  p.   63. 

Lukens.    "Children's   Drawings   in   the   Earlier    Years,"   p.    11. 

Burk,   "Genetic  versus  Logical   Order  in  Drawing,"  p.    305. 


io8  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

is  hence  often  spoken  of  as  conceptual  drawing-.  Passy,  Miss  Partridge 
and  Kerschensteiner  all  report  experiments  where  they  posed  before  a 
class  and  found  that  even  elementary  school  children  were  as  liable  to 
draw  them  standing  as  sitting,  or  with  hats  as  withoiit."'.  The  difficulties 
of  execution  are  so  great  with  little  children  that  there  is  little  desire 
to  look  at  other  drawings,  or  at  an  object,  even  if  the  child  be  nominally 
copying  it.  Possibly  if  this  motor  difiiculty  did  not  exist  the  result 
would  be  the  same,  for  one  cannot  help  feeling  that  the  aim  at  this  time 
is  self-expression  rather  than  representation.  In  fact,  drawing  for  a  very 
young  child  is  so  thoroughly  a  language  that  we  may  be  wrong  in  con- 
sidering it  as  in  any  degree  an  art  expression.  One  is  startled  to  see 
how  easily  a  child  at  this  age  declares  a  mass  of  meaningless  lines  to  be 
a  man,  a  horse,  or  an  engine.  Whatever  may  be  true  of  adults,  "art  for 
art's  sake,"  has  no  place  in  a  child's  world. 

So  thoroughly  is  all  drawing  conceptual  at  this  period  that  if  a 
child  is  drawing  a  complex  whole  he  is  content  to  put  down,  one  after 
the  other,  the  parts  he  knows  and  happens  to  think  about.  Thus,  if  he  is 
drawing  a  cow,  he  makes  a  scrawl  of  some  kind  to  stand  for  the  cow 
as  a  whole;  on  one  side  of  this  he  scratches  some  horns,  on  the  other 
side  some  legs  and  a  tail,  while  a  smudge  some  inches  away  is  declared 
to  be  the  hair.  If  he  draws  a  man  on  horseback,  you  see  both  of  his 
legs ;  in  drawing  a  woman  he  may  draw  her  body,  then  put  on  her 
clothes,  one  garment  after  another,  and  even  draw  her  pocket,  a  purse 
in  the  pocket  and  a  penny  in  the  purse.  This  tendency  to  work  out  a 
detail  at  a  time  has  led  some  students  to  speak  of  this  stage  as  the  cata- 
loguing period  in  drawing." 

Nothing  is  more  striking  in  the  drawings  made  by  children  at  this 
period  than  the  way  in  which  they  universally  invent  or  adopt  diagram- 
matic forms.  They  do  not  draw  the  outline  of  men,  or  trees  or  houses,  they 
make  symbols  or  signs  to  stand  for  them.  Thus  they  make  a  straight  line 
for  a  leg,  a  little  circle  for  an  eye ;  a  vertical  line  with  a  few  horizontal 
lines  on  the  sides  represents  a  tree.  ]\Iany  people  are  led  by  this  fact 
to  assume  that  children  tend  to  abstract  form  from  things,  and  that  they 
are  interested  in  such  form  abstractions  and  hence  should  be  given  work 

"*.  Passy,   "Notes   sur  les   Dessins   des  Enfants."   p.    370. 
Partridge,  "Children's  Drawings  of  Men  and  Women,"  p.   175. 
Kerschensteiner.    "Die    Entwickelung    der    zeichnerischen    Begabung,"  p.    15. 
"Barnes,   "Studies  in   Education,"   Vol.   I,   p.   62. 


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CHILD  STUDY  AND  ART  EDUCATION.  in 

with  lines  and  plane  surfaces."  A  little  observation,  however,  will  show 
any  one  that  these  diagrams  are  due,  not  to  the  child's  having  abstracted 
the  form  from  the  object,  but  to  his  inability  to  co-ordinate  visual  and 
motor  images  and  to  his  slight  power  over  muscular  direction.  With 
developing  power  his  growth  is  not  from  objects  to  more  abstract  forms, 
but  from  his  first  crude  diagrams  he  moves  steadily  to  real  objects.  The 
pictorial  evolution  of  a  man  illustrates  these  steps." 

The  correctness  of  this  position  is  further  shown  by  the  fact  that 
ail  of  a  child's  spontaneous  drawings  before  he  is  six  years  old  are 
pictorial.  Mrs.  Maitland"  found  only  five  per  cent,  of  the  children  at 
this  age  drawing  geometrical  designs,  and  only  three  per  cent,  using 
ornament.  In  illustrating  stories,  Barnes**  found  less  than  one  per  cent, 
using  ornamental  forms.  Lukens"  found  but  two  per  cent,  using  geo- 
metrical designs  and  decoration  combined.  As  we  have  repeatedly  said, 
drawing  is  for  these  young  children  a  language  closely  akin  to  speech. 
It  grows  up  by  the  same  alternating  analyses  and  syntheses  that  we  find 
accompanying  the  mastery  of  speech.  From  the  tangle  of  lines  that 
stands  for  a  man  emerges,  as  it  were  by  accident,  some  circumscribed 
part  that  is  recognized  as  the  head ;  arms  and  legs  spring  out  from  it ; 
eyes  find  their  place;  and  then  a  nose  follows.  A  body  evolves  below  the 
head,  often  by  uniting  the  legs  with  a  line ;  ears  linger  until  later.'"  These 
early  figures  of  men  are  almost  invariably  drawn  full-face,  possibly 
because  only  a  full-face  figure  gives  the  child  a  chance  to  enumerate  all 
the  features.  Since  throughout  childhood  the  motor  impulses  tend  to 
concentrate,  now  in  one  direction,  now  in  another,  the  interest  in  draw- 
ing is  very  spasmodic.  Sometimes  it  continues  strong  for  several  days, 
and  then  entirely  disappears  for  several  weeks  or  even  months." 

The  objects  that  a  child  is  especially  interested  in  drawing  at  this 
lime  are  those  related  to  his  own  daily  life  and  needs.  Men  and  women 
are  most  attractive;  babies,  domesticated  animals,  objects  of  daily  use, 
and  playthings  are  the  objects  which  he  must  portray  if  he  is  to  draw 
with  avidity.     His  standards  are  so  low  that  he  has  no  fear  of  being 

^•■Shinn,  "Notes  on  the  Development  of  a  Child,"  p.  96.  See  Burk,  p.  314;  O'Shea,  "Ex- 
pression Through   Drawing,"  p.   1020. 

■"'Barnes,    "Pictorial   Evolution   of   a   Man."    Studies,    Vol.    I. 

"Maitland,    "What    Children    Draw    to    Please    Themselves,"    p.  79. 

**Barnes,   "A  Study  of   Children's  Drawings,"   p.    5. 

<*Lukens,   "Study  of  Children's  Drawing  in  the  Early  Years."    i>.    19. 

••"Partridge,    "Children's    Drawirigs    of    Men    and    Women,"    p.    175. 

"Shinn,  "Notes  on  Children's  Drawings,"  edited  by  Brown,  p.   9.     Lukens,  p.   19. 


112  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

unable  to  realize  them.^'  He  feels  as  secure  in  drawing  a  man  as  in 
drawing  a  vertical  line. 

Whether  children  tend  to  draw-  mass  or  outline  before  they  are  six 
has  attracted  much  attention.  Mrs.  A.  H.  Putnam^"*  provided  in  her 
kindergarten,  water  colors,  colored  crayons,  slates,  paper  and  pencils  and 
the  sand  table,  and  then  encouraged  her  children  to  make  representations 
of  a  ball.  There  was  no  direction  given,  but  eighty-seven  out  of  ninety- 
seven  children  who  had  been  in  the  kindergarten  but  a  few  days  drew 
outlines  with  pencils.  It  may  be  said  that  this  is  what  they  had  always 
been  accustomed  to  do,  but  the  line  seems  best  to  correspond  with  what 
we  have  found  to  be  the  children's  aim  in  drawing  at  this  period. ^^ 

Any  thoughtful  observer  who  watches  a  child's  drawing  from  the 
time  he  is  two  until  he  is  six  must  be  deeply  impressed  with  the  great 
aid  it  furnishes  to  all  of  his  processes  of  thought.  It  relates  visual  and 
motor  impulses,  thereby  perfecting  visual  judgments,  the  great  majority 
of  which  rest  on  motor  experiences,  and  at  the  same  time  it  directs  and 
cultivates  motor  activity.  By  recording  images  and  thus  holding  them 
before  the  mind  for  consideration  such  drawing  forms  one  of  the  most 
effective  agencies  in  organizing  a  body  of  correct  ideas  or  concepts  on 
which  all  intelligent  thinking  must  finally  rest. 

In  the  period  from  six  to  ten  years  old  physical  activity  is  less  domi- 
nating, but  still  very  powerful,  and  the  children  think  in  larger  wholes. 
This  is  very  nnportant,  for,  as  Kerschensteiner  has  pointed  out.  "The 
development  of  graphic  expression  is  connected  very  closely  with  the 
development  of  the  comprehension  of  a  whole.  The  teaching  of  every 
subject  that  furthers  this  comprehension  furthers  at  the  same  time  the 
art  of  drawing."-"  Most  of  their  lives  must  still  be  realized  through 
domg  things,  but  the  children  can  sit  still  and  think  a  little.  The  draw- 
ing is  still  largely  conceptual  rather  than  representative ;  but  instead  of 
concerning  itself  with  details  it  goes  over  into  continuous  series  of  related 
things.  The  cataloguing  stage  gives  way  to  the  picture  writing  stage, 
and  Miss  Partridge  has  traced  the  steps  in  this  transition.^  The  multi- 
plied studies  on  children's  drawings  at  this  period  all  agree  in  recogniz- 
ing this  quality  of  narrative  as  its  fundamental  characteristic. 

''-O'Shea.    "Expression   Through    Drawing,"    p.    1016. 
■'^Pedagogical   Seminary,   March,    1893. 

"Josephine  C.   Locke,    "With  What   Should  Drawing  Begin?"     Publications  National  Educa- 
tion  Association,    1893.   p.   491. 
-"'■Kerschensteiner,    p.    486. 
■'•'Sophie   Partridge,  "Children's  Drawings,"  p.   163. 


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CHILD  STUDY  AND  ART  EDUCATION.  115 

In  summing  up  the  results  of  her  extended  study  on  children's  draw- 
ings at  this  age,  Aliss  Sophie  Partridge  says  that  they  are  characterized 
by  love  of  movement;  they  are  fragmentary,  with  little  attention  to  the 
possibility  of  vision ;  there  is  no  attempt  at  perspective  and  small  sense  of 
proportion ;  and  the  interest  is  itself  fitful  and  broken.  At  the  same  time 
she  notes  with  approval  the  boldness  and  firmness  of  outline,  the  confi- 
dent handling  of  difficulties,  the  ingenious  interpretation  of  action,  and 
the  general  atmosphere  of  enjoyment  and  determination  they  often  indi- 
cate." In  other  words,  it  is  a  time  when  potentialities  are  felt,  but  not 
yet  realized. 

The  children  still  draw  some  ideal  form  which  they  have  in  their 
minds  rather  than  a  representation  of  the  object  before  them.  Professor 
Clark  found  that  at  eight  years,  eighty-eight  per  cent,  of  the  children 
drew  an  apple  placed  before  them  with  no  regard  to  its  real  appearance 
or  position.  Any  other  apple  placed  in  any  other  position  might  have 
been  equally  well  represented  by  their  outlines.  Only  at  the  age  of  nine  or 
ten  did  they  begin  to  note  peculiarities  in  form  and  position  in  the  thing 
they  were  supposed  to  copy.  Not  until  the  children  were  eleven  years 
old  did  the  majority  of  them  shape  their  drawings  by  the  article  before 
them." 

Perspective  with  children  at  the  beginning  of  this  period  is  non- 
existent. Clark^'  gave  a  large  number  of  school  children  an  apple  with 
a  hat  pin  stuck  through  it  as  a  model.  At  six  years  old,  ninety-seven  per 
cent,  of  the  children  drew  the  pin  showing  all  the  way  across  the  apple. 
Not  until  the  age  of  nine  did  a  majority  of  the  children  have  the  pin 
stop  at  the  edge  of  the  apple.  These  results  are  fully  borne  out  by  the 
experiments  of  Kerschensteiner,  who,  in  his  independent  experiments  in 
Munich,  found  no  attempt  to  represent  a  third  dimension  by  boys  under 
seven  years  old  nor  by  girls  under  nine.  Not  until  boys  were  ten  and 
girls  thirteen  did  half  of  them  make  any  attempt  to  show  perspective  in 
their  drawings."*  The  conclusions  of  Levinstein  are  in  the  same  direc- 
tion." 

The  objects  children  like  to  draw  at  this  time  have  been  worked 

"^Sophie   Partridge,    pp.    137-138. 

="Arthur  B.  Clark,  "The  Child's  Attitude  Toward     Perspective   Problems,"  p.  284. 
^^Ideiii,  p.  286. 

•^Kerschensteiner,  "Die  Entwickelung  der  Zeichnerischen  Begabung,"  pp.  219-240  and  486. 
See  also  Levinstein,  25-32. 

"^Levinstein,    "Kinderzeichnungen,"   p.    25. 


ii6  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

out  by  Mrs.  Maitland."  As  a  result  of  her  study  of  fifteen  hundred  and 
seventy  drawings  made  by  children  who  were  simply  told  to  draw  some- 
thing- they  liked,  she  found  that  thirty-three  per  cent,  drew  men  and 
women,  eighteen  per  cent,  animals,  twenty-seven  per  cent,  plants,  and 
twenty-five  per  cent,  houses.  Conventional  forms  and  designs  were 
drawn  by  only  five  per  cent,  of  the  younger  children,  while  the  older 
ones  had  thirt3'-seven  per  cent,  of  such  drawings.  Ornament  was 
attempted  in  only  three  per  cent,  of  the  pictures  of  all  ages.  This  study 
bears  out  the  conclusion  that  children  draw  to  express  something  they 
want  to  say ;  that  form  is  unimportant  until  toward  the  end  of  the  ele- 
mentary period,  and  that  beauty,  as  such,  plays  small  part  in  the  drawings. 

Several  studies  have  been  made  to  determine  the  objects  which  chil- 
dren of  the  school  age  consider  pretty.  Miss  Drury*"  asked  some  hun- 
dreds of  boys  and  girls  to  describe  the  prettiest  thing  they  had  ever  seen 
and  to  say  why  they  thought  it  pretty,  and  Barnes"  repeated  the  experi- 
ment. The  children  universally  confounded  anything  which  they  liked  or 
found  interesting  with  what  they  thought  pretty.  Thus  they  say :  "A 
sweetstuff  shop  is  the  prettiest  thing  because  I  like  to  eat  the  sweets." 
Judging  by  the  compositions  as  a  whole,  only  twenty  per  cent,  of  the 
writers  made  their  choice  on  aesthetic  grounds  at  seven  years  old,  and 
seventy  per  cent,  at  thirteen  years.  This  indicates  what  any  thoughtful 
observer  must  have  noted,  that  even  in  the  elementary  school  period  the 
aesthetic  feelings  are  not  yet  clearly  separated  from  pleasurable  feelings 
in  general. 

The  things  selected  as  beautiful  by  ninety-one  per  cent,  of  the  little 
children  arc  single  objects,  such  as  a  toy  or  a  flower.  Gradually  larger 
composites  come  to  prevail  until  at  thirteen  years  only  twenty-two  per 
cent,  of  the  writers  choose  these  simple  units.  Glitter,  color  and  motion 
arc  still  most  often  mentioned  as  reasons  for  thinking  things  pretty. 
Sixty-nine  per  cent,  of  the  children  choose  things  made  by  man,  and 
the  same  proportion  name  natural  objects. 

During  the  period,  then,  from  six  to  ten  years  old,  life  may  still 
be  described  as  prevailingly  motor,  with  wide  intellectual  curiosity,  with 
little  distinctly  aesthetic  interest,  and  with  a  growing  interest  in  color. 
It  is  still  the  so-called  primary  colors  that  attract,  rather  than  neutral 

"-Maitland,    "What   Children    Draw   to    Please   Themselves." 
•'•'Mary    Drury,   "Children's  Attitude  Towards  the   Beautiful.'" 
"*Earl    Barnes,   "The   Prettiest   Thing."     Studies   in    Education,   II. 


CHILD  STUDY  AND  ART  EDUCATION.  119 

tints.  In  drawing,  the  interest  is  in  larger  wholes  than  formerly,  and 
tends  to  narrative  forms.  There  is  little  interest  in  perspective,  orna- 
ment or  decoration.    Drawing  is  still  distinctly  a  language  of  expression. 

In  the  last  part  of  the  elementary  school  period  which  we  are  to 
consider,  covering  the  ages  from  nine  or  ten  to  fourteen  or  fifteen,  pro- 
found changes  are  taking  place  in  both  body  and  mind."  On  the  physi- 
cal side  there  is  a  final  adjustment  of  functions.  Childhood  changes  to 
youth,  and  skill  in  manual  dexterity  can  be  gained  far  more  easily  and 
surely  than  at  a  later  age.  If  accurate  and  skillful  use  of  pencil  and 
brush  is  not  acquired  at  this  time,  it  is  seldom  secured  in  later  life.* 

On  the  mental  side,  there  is  a  tendency  to  work  up  elements  of 
knowledge  into  larger  forms.  General  ideas  now  become  attractive  and 
the  children  are  interested  in  abstract  forms.  In  every  branch  of  study 
these  changes  become  apparent.  In  composition,  the  children  choose 
vague  indefinite  subjects  about  which  to  write;  in  natural  history,  they 
love  to  classify ;  and  in  number,  after  the  children  are  nine  years  old,  the 
proportion  of  those  who  like  the  study,  steadily  increases  as  compared 
with  those  who  dislike  it.  In  drawing,  the  children  no  longer  try  to  tell 
stories,  but,  instead,  they  pick  out  what  seems  to  them  the  most  signifi- 
cant moment  and  present  it  as  a  spiritual  type  of  the  whole." 

On  the  emotional  side,  this  is  the  great  period  of  awakenings.  Chil- 
dren begin  their  active  religious  life  and  pass  from  the  anthropomorphic 
ideas  of  earlier  childhood  to  spiritual  conceptions  and  aspirations.  Their 
interest  in  nature  broadens  and  they  begin  to  care  for  larger  landscapes, 
and  for  the  more  intimate  relations  of  man's  spirit  to  the  external  world. 
They  go  out  to  Nature  with  a  deeper  sense  of  her  mystery  and  charm. 
This  broadening  of  the  sensibilities  gives  rise  to  artistic  feelings,  which 
tend  to  express  themselves  in  dress  and  manners,  in  form  and  color. 
Speaking  of  this  period  Lancaster  says :  "The  curve  for  the  love  of  art 
begins  at  ten,  rises  rapidly  till  twelve  and  falls  steadily  after  fifteen,  reach- 
ing the  base  line  at  twenty.  It  is  one  of  the  first  awakenings  of  the 
adolescent  mind.**  He  goes  on  to  say  that  in  the  examination  of  a  large 
number  of  papers  at  this  time  he  found  a  regular  change  in  taste  in  art 
from    bright-colored    pictures  of  people  or  animals  in  action  to  quiet 

"'On  this  whole  period  see  G.  Stanley  Hall,  "Adolescence,"  2  vols..  New  York,  1904. 
'"See  C.   Lewis  Hind,   "The  Education  of  the  Artist,"   London,   1907. 
"Barnes,   "Studies   in    Education,"   vol.    I,   p.    155. 

•*E.  G.  Lancaster,  "The  Psychology  and  Pedagogy  of  Adolescence."  Pedagogical  Semi- 
nary, July,   1897,  p.   1 01. 


120  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

pictures  of  still  life  or  nature.  After  fourteen  man}'  spoke  of  loving  only 
those  pictures  which  represent  deep  feeling,  or  portray  the  soul  of  the 
artist."" 

With  these  deeper  feelings  comes  a  sense  of  inability  to  adequately 
represent  the  subject.  Barnes'"  found  that  children  drew  less  pictures  in 
any  series  of  illustrations  after  thirteen,  and  that  only  after  this  age  did 
children  excuse  themselves  from  drawing  on  the  ground  of  inability. 
Lukens"'  emphasizes  this  point,  and  O'Shea''  and  Gallagher"  record 
increasing  discouragement  after  nine  years  of  age. 

When  we  come  to  the  application  of  these  results  of  our  studies  on 
children,  to  the  teaching  of  drawing,  we  are  confronted  with  the  diffi- 
culties that  meet  us  in  all  fields  of  practical  adjustment.'*  Diagnosis  can 
he  made  increasingly  scientific  and  exact;  prescriptions  must  always  be 
blended  of  art  and  science.  In  dealing  with  drawing  our  difficulty  is 
increased,  however,  through  the  fact  that  teachers  of  drawing  approach 
their  task  from  two  widely  dirlerent  points  of  view.  The  one  class  really 
looks  upon  the  drawing  lesson  as  a  manual  training  exercise,  and  em- 
phasizes exactness,  order,  a  close  relation  of  expert  manipulation, 
and  certain  abstract  conceptions  of  form.  The  other  class  looks  upon  it 
as  an  expression  of  beauty,  prizes  sensibility  and  abhors  a  straight  line. 
And  yet  even  under  these  conditions  some  of  our  conclusions  seem  cap- 
able of  very  general  application. 

Under  two  years  of  age,  there  can  be  little  direct  art  appeal.  It  is 
well  to  have  the  child  surrounded  by  good  expressions  in  form  and  color, 
but  the  mother's  dress  is  more  important  than  the  wall  decorations. 
Motor  development  is  the  main  thing.  Elaboration  of  color  in  playthings 
is  wasted ;  strong,  distinct  effects  are  wanted  in  all  sense  impressions. 
Donatello's  "Singing  Boys,"  which  adorns  a  creche  in  one  of  our  cities,  is 
of  value  only  as  advertising  matter  to  interest  patrons. 

During  the  cataloguing  stage,  from  two  to  six,  a  child  should  do  a 
great  deal  of  drawing.  He  should  draw  figures  on  large  surfaces,  which 
should  be  so  placed  as  to  encourage  activity  of  the  central  muscle  masses. 
The  subjects  should  be  men,  women,  babies,  animals,  toys  and  the  like. 

""G.   Stanley  Hall,   "Adolescence,"  vol.   II,   p.   484. 

""Barnes,    "Study  in    Children's   Drawings,"   p.    4. 

"'Lukens,   "Study  of  Children's  Drawings  in  the  Early  Years,"    p.    18. 

'■-O'Shea.    "Ex[)ression    Through    Drawing,"    p.    1017. 

'^Marguerite  Ciallagher,  "Children's  Spontaneous  Drawings,"  Northvvestern  Monthly,  Sep- 
tember.   1897,    p.    131, 

'^.\moni3;  the  best  works  on  this  subject  are  those  by  Kerschensteiner,  Burk  and  Lukens, 
already   mentioned. 


CHILD  STUDY  AND  ART  EDUCATION.  123 

He  should  be  encouraged  to  leave  the  scribble  stage  for  the  few  clear, 
strong  lines  that  mark  the  diagrammatic  period."  Expression  being  the 
important  thing  at  this  period,  all  criticism  should  be  made  subordinate, 
and  incidental  enough,  so  as  not  to  discourage  effort  or  weaken  zest. 
Suggestion  and  correction  should  follow  the  same  lines  as  in  other  forms 
of  language.  Grammar  must  wait  on  growth.  Of  course,  there  will  be 
some  attempts  at  copying  objects,  but  the  child  had  best  represent  some- 
thing vital  to  himself.  If  he  has  made  a  house  with  blocks,  or  an  outline 
of  a  farm  with  sticks,  he  will  have  organized  the  motor  impulses  corre- 
sponding with  the  visual  impulses  in  him  through  doing,  and  he  will  have 
an  image  worked  out  in  his  mind.  He  will  then  be  interested  in  trans- 
lating the  motor  impulses  of  building,  into  the  motor  impulses  of  draw- 
ing. Later  on  he  will  draw  plans  in  order  that  he  may  build;  now  he 
will  build  in  order  that  he  may  draw.  The  wise  teacher  will  direct  atten- 
tion to  the  beautiful  in  line,  and  color,  and  mass ;  and  the  forming  of 
larger  units  in  the  mind  will  lead  towards  appreciation  of  landscape.  The 
artistic  appreciation  will  be  gradually  separating  itself  from  the  general 
mass  of  sensibility,  and  some  of  its  elements  will  be  shaping  themselves. 
All  art  development  in  this  period  will  be  a  by-product  of  general  doing 
and  thinking,  as  it  must  largely  always  be. 

Since  the  child's  drawing  at  this  period  is  so  descriptive,  drawing 
in  line  seems  more  natural  than  mass  work.  The  contour  of  an  object 
described  by  a  line  is,  of  course,  false,  since  the  actual  division  between 
two  objects  is  always  seen  as  difference  in  light  and  shade.  But  the  child 
thinks  his  objects  in  arbitrary  forms.  The  same  ignorance  that  makes 
him  so  ready  to  draw  a  man  leaves  him  in  no  doubt  as  to  the  bounding 
contour  of  an  object.  Line  seems  his  natural  expression,  but  since  mass 
is  to  be  his  expression  in  the  future,  if  he  becomes  an  artist,  he  should  be 
encouraged  toward  it  from  the  first.'"  If  too  much  used  at  first,  Lukens 
fears  it  may  prevent  the  child's  leaving  the  scribbling  stage." 

In  the  period  from  six  to  ten  years  old,  if  the  drawing  is  to  fol- 
low a  child's  natural  lines  of  interest,  it  must  have  a  narrative  tendency. 
It  must  still  be  looked  upon  as  descriptive  rather  than  representative; 
but  the  children  must  be  constantly  urged  forward  to  the  next  stage. 
During  the  earlier  periods  there  seems  little  danger  of  the  child's  accept- 

"Lukens,   "A  Study   of  Children's   Drawings  in   the   Early   Years,"  p.  20. 
"Josephine  C.  Locke,  "With  What  Should  Drawing  Begin?"  p.  491. 
"Lukens,  p.  9. 


124  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

ing  a  set  of  arbitrary  symbols  and  becoming  arrested  in  his  develop- 
ment. From  six  or  seven  years  on,  however,  there  must  be  constant 
watchfulness  to  prevent  this  happening.  In  the  use  of  speech  there  is 
little  danger  of  arrest,  because  the  children  are  surrounded  by  people  who 
are,  compared  to  themselves,  artists  in  speech.  If  children  were  sur- 
rounded by  people  who  were  all  artists  in  drawing  and  color  they  would 
be  carried  along  by  the  mere  force  of  imitation.  The  fact  is,  however, 
that  most  adults  never  become  more  than  seven  or  eight  years  old  in 
ix)wer  to  draw,  and  they  seldom  draw  at  all.  In  such  an  atmosphere 
of  general  arrest  a  child  will  only  go  on,  if  he  is  encouraged  to  do  so. 

During  this  period  increased  attention  will  be  given  to  exact  drill 
of  motor  centres.  Manual  exercises  with  splints,  basketry,  fabrics,  wood- 
work, and  gardening  should  fill  a  good  deal  of  the  child's  time.  Simple 
color  should  be  increasingly  used  and  color  harmonies  should  be  con- 
sciously taught. 

Little  attention  will  be  given  to  formal  decoration,  but  the  elements 
of  decoration  will  begin  to  appear,  first,  in  the  handwork  and  then  copied 
in  the  drawing.  Everywhere  with  undeveloped  minds  ornament  springs 
not  out  of  play  with  abstract  lines,  but  out  of  modifications  of  useful 
forms.  ]\lany  exercises  will  be  given  the  children,  tending  to  make  them 
acquainted  with  straight  and  curved  lines  through  use.  Any  definite 
form-study  comes  best  in  the  next  period. 

Simple  things  will  be  drawn  with  the  object  before  the  child,  and 
some  of  this  copying  may  well  be  done  with  a  brush  or  soft  crayon,  as 
mass  work.  But  all  this  work  must  still  be  kept  concrete  and  fluid,  free 
from  any  formal  drills  or  definite  limitations.  Every  study  made  in  this 
period  shows  that  as  the  children  approach  twelve  or  thirteen  years  of  age 
they  lose  spontaneity  and  daring.^*  With  greater  knowledge  they  learn 
their  limitations,  and  often  through  being  turned  aside  to  perfunctory 
drill,  they  grow  tired  and  turn  away  from  real  drawing,  to  join  the 
arrested  development  group.  If  most  of  the  children  became  dumb  at 
twelve  we  should  all  at  least  notice  it;  most  American  children  become 
artistically  dumb  at  this  period  and  we  accept  it  as  a  natural  law. 

In  this  period  beautiful  things  have  a  large  influence  over  children, 
and  it  seems  to  be  true  that  they  respond  most  vigorously  to  art  products 
that  are  only  a  step  or  two  before  them.     For  purposes  of  school  room 

'T>arnes,   "Study  in   Children's   Drawings."   p.   4. 
M.    V.   O'Shea,    "Expression    Through   Drawing,"    p.    loi-. 


CHILD  STUDY  AND  ART  EDUCATION.  127 

and  text  book  decoration  we  need  to  study  children's  tastes  and  to  know 
the  steps  they  tend  to  take.  It  is  probable  that  just  as  presenting  literary 
masterpieces  to  children  too  soon,  tends  to  weaken  their  later  useful- 
ness, so  presenting  masterpieces  in  art  that  lie  too  far  ahead  of  the  chil- 
dren, robs  these  agents  of  their  strongest  appeal  at  the  time  when  we 
most  need  them. 

A  few  years  ago  a  series  of  wall  pictures  for  nursery  decoration  was 
brought  out  by  the  Liberty  Company  in  London.  The  white  and  yellow 
hen  following  a  procession  of  active  yellow  chickens  across  a  dark  green 
background,  the  row  of  black  and  white  and  yellow  puppies  chasmg  a 
self-sufficient  old  rooster,  in  similar  colors,  fill  the  children  with  delight. 
Students  of  childhood  must  have  questioned  the  value  of  their  labors  in 
the  presence  of  these  panels,  for  here  was  an  artist  who  had  struck  into 
existence  pictures  which  seemed  to  embody,  by  a  stroke  of  genius,  the 
results  of  the  laborious  investigations  of  Preyer  and  his  followers.  The 
subjects  were  right,  their  activities  were  right,  size  and  arrangement 
were  right,  and  the  colors  were  perfect. 

It  was  only  when  we  learned  that  Mr.  Cecil  Alden  had  worked  out 
these  results  in  daily  conjunction  with  groups  of  children,  as  Hoffmann 
worked  out  the  "Struwelpeter,"  beloved  of  German  children,  that  we 
felt  reassured  as  to  the  value  of  the  direct  study  of  children.  Since  these 
panels  appeared,  they  have  been  widely  imitated,  but  the  artists  have  not 
known  the  vital  things  to  copy.  The  dull  green  background,  last  color 
to  be  recognized  by  children  and  hence  right  for  a  background,  has  been 
replaced  by  purple;  the  striking  white  and  yellow  foreground,  giving 
the  strong  psychological  reactions  desired  by  little  children,  has  been 
changed  to  red  and  green.  For  the  simple,  honest,  laughing  life  of  hens 
and  puppies  have  been  substituted  fantastic  frogs  and  languishing  damsels  * 
for  the  dynamic  quality  of  the  original  has  teen  substituted  a  lot  of 
passive  lay  figures.  Nowhere  could  one  find  a  better  illustration  of  the 
danger  of  providing  art  products  for  children  without  consulting  those 
who  are  to  judge  and  enjoy  them. 

In  the  third  period,  from  nine  or  ten  to  fourteen  or  fifteen,  child 
5tudy  teaches  us  that  drawing  should  be  a  constant  accompaniment  of 
all  school  work.  All  expression  must  spring  from  impression,  and  no 
impression  can  be  clear  and  accurate  and  understood  until  it  has  been 
expressed.  Speech,  drawing  and  acting  are  the  great  means  of  expres- 
sion, and  each  strengthens  the  other. 


128  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  children  are  now  coming  to  observe  and  compare  with  some 
degree  of  exactness.  Drawing  will  here  prove  of  the  greatest  value  to 
them.  As  Agassiz  said:  "A  lead  pencil  is  an  excellent  microscope." 
Accurate  conceptions  of  form  lie  at  the  base  of  all  good  work  in  biology, 
and  not  until  a  child  has  tried  to  represent  a  leaf,  a  flower,  a  plant,  an 
insect  or  an  animal  will  he  begin  to  clearly  define  its  form,  and  so  pre- 
pare himself  for  comparison  and  generalization."  Through  all  the  vary- 
ing seasons  of  the  year  our  elementary  school  children  should  be  sketching 
the  common  living  forms  about  them,  and  as  with  speech,  much  of  the 
work  should  be  free  and  sketch}^  to  catch  the  spirit,  and  some  should  be 
careful  and  exact  to  catch  the  fact. 

It  can  be  said  that  all  language  rises  out  of  motor  activity,  and  this 
is  especially  true  of  the  language  of  drawing.  Wherever  the  child  needs 
to  describe  any  objective  thing  accurately,  he  had  best  draw  it  first.  In 
all  the  work  wnth  elementary  physics  and  chemistry  he  will  need  to  draw 
his  apparatus  and  illustrate  with  sketches  each  step  in  the  experiment. 
With  his  increased  sense  of  difficult}'  :n  expression,  due  to  greater 
knowledge,  he  will  less  freely  illustrate  stories  and  history,  but  in  half  of 
the  school  work,  he  will  find  his  drawing  pad  his  best  ally. 

But  durmg  this  latest  elementary  period  few  children  wall  be  able  to 
move  far  in  the  field  of  pure  abstraction.  Motor  impulses  must  still  be 
strengthened  through  use  of  clay  and  sand  and  wood  and  paper.  'I'he 
children  must  still  do  things  connected  with  things  they  see,  and  then 
perfect  their  motor  and  visual  experience  through  expressing  them  in 
drawing  and  color,  in  speech  and  dramatic  action.  The  drawing  lesson, 
like  the  language  lesson  in  this  period,  should  be  given  all  day  lonsf. 

In  order  that  these  pictures  may  be  well  drawn  the  children  must 
have  more  definite  technical  knowledge,  and  hence  the  grammar  of  draw- 
ing must  be  taken  up.  Perspective,  geometrical  drawing  and  decoration 
will  receive  a  good  deal  of  attention.  Kerschensteiner'"  says  that  his  in- 
vestigations show  that  "after  eight,  bovs  as  well  as  girls  need  expression 
for  rhytlimic  feeling,  and  among  both  boys  and  girls  naturalistic  motives 
and  arabesques  are  much  preferred  to  geometric  patterns."  His  further 
conclusion  is  thr^t :    "The  talent  for  ornamental  decoration  of  planes  and 

'".Tames   M.    Stone,   "The   Relation   of  Nature    Study    to    Drawing    in    the    Public    School." 
Procc-cdings  National   Education   Association,    1900,   p.   524. 
""Kerschensteiner,   p.   386. 


CHILD  STUDY  AND  ART  EDUCATION.  131 

objects  generally  shows  itself  early  to  be  distinct  from  the  talent  for 
figure  and  face  drawing."" 

In  mathematics,  too,  there  will  be  the  beginning  of  geometry. 
Wearied  with  trying  to  hold  the  mass  of  unrelated  experience  that  he  has 
collected,  during  his  ten  or  twelve  years  of  almost  constant  activity,  and 
with  the  power  of  abstraction  which  only  years  can  bring  to  most  of  us, 
the  children  will  turn  with  delight  to  systematic  study  of  lines  and  angles 
and  plane  surfaces.  Inventional  geometry  will  prove  a  delight  and  a 
source  of  grov.th,  in  exact  proportion  to  the  thoroughness  with  which 
drill  in  lines  and  angles  has  been  neglected  in  the  earlier  period. 

With  the  child's  added  manual  skill  will  come  the  need  for  pre- 
liminary drawings  for  work  in  paper,  wood  and  metal,  in  the  school  gar- 
den and  in  planning  the  playing  field.  In  geography  he  will  need  to  draw 
lines  and  plans  and  maps  which  he  can  follow  out  into  space,  away  from 
his  city  or  village. 

Of  the  more  distinctly  artistic  training  one  must  speak  with  great 
hesitancy.  We  have  no  really  good  studies  on  youthful  artistic  genius, 
and  geniuses  are  not  common.  In  educating  genius  one  should  remem- 
ber the  advice  about  making  a  rabbit  pie — first  catch  your  rabbit.  No 
one  can.  however,  read  far  into  the  biography  of  art  without  seeing  that 
almost  all  great  painters  and  sculptors  began  their  work  by  the  time  they 
were  twelve  or  thirteen  years  old.  Michael  Angelo  was  apprenticed  to 
the  painter's  trade  when  he  was  thirteen  years  old,  Rembrandt  when  he 
was  fourteen,  and  Raphael  was  an  assistant  under  Perugino  when  only 
seventeen.  In  drawing  and  in  painting,  as  in  instrumental  music,  genius 
must  have  training  in  flexible  hand  and  arm  exercises  in  childhood. 
Facility  in  translating  visual  impressions  into  muscular  impressions,  and 
sensibility  to  color  harmony,  must  also  be  sought  early  in  life. 

Individual  instruction  seems  almost  indispensable  in  training  artistic 
genius,  and  all  rules  fail.  As  Dr.  Hall  says :  "At  the  period  of  adolescence 
genius  should  be  encouraged  to  essay  the  highest  that  the  imagination 
can  body  forth  ;  it  may  be  crude  and  lame  in  execution,  but  it  will  be 
lofty,  perhaps  grand,  and  if  it  is  original  in  consciousness  it  will  be  so  in 
effect.""  Probably  the  sooner  a  child  begins  to  look  at  the  world  around 
him  as  masses  of  light  and  shade  and  color  the  better;  and  yet  he  must 
know  with  sure  eye  and  touch  the  boundary  possibility  of  a  line. 

^'Kerschensteiner.    p.    486.  « 

*'-G.   Stanley  Hall,   ".Adolescence,"  vol.   I,   p.    180. 


132  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  more  one  reads  the  biographies  of  painters  the  more  he  realizes 
that  artistic  genius  is  best  cultivated  through  contact  with  artistic  genius. 
It  is  largely  a  matter  of  contagion.  Creation  is  so  much  greater  than 
making,  that  no  teacher  can  make  it.  Schools  have  never  made  poets, 
dramatists,  or  artists,  but  few  are  destined  to  be  creative  geniuses.  By 
following  the  lead  of  the  children  we  ma}^  hope  to  give  each  a  wide  range 
of  expression  for  his  life,  thereby  strengthening  that  life.  The  wise  teacher 
will  detect  genius  as  early  as  he  can,  and  so  far  as  possible  he  will  pass  it 
on  to  other  geniuses,  so  that  each  may  learn  by  contagion  of  the  spirit. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  ART  TEACHING  IN  THE 
ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 

By  Julia  Cecilia  Cremins. 

THIS  report  represents  returns  from  fifty  of  the  principal  cities  of  the 
United  States.     It  aims  to  show : 

1.  The  manner  in  v/hich  art  teaching  is  generally  conducted  in  the 
schools. 

2.  The  professional  training  required  for  eligibility  as  supervisor 
or  director  of  art  work. 

3.  The  time  given  to  the  subjects  of  drawing  and  constructive 
work. 

4.  The  methods  of  training  the  grade  teachers. 

5.  The  agencies  employed  to  further  art  appreciation  by  the  teach- 
ing body  and  the  general  public. 

Without  exception  the  returns  show  that  the  art  work  in  the  schools 
is  under  the  direction  of  directors  or  supervisors  who  have  been  specially 
trained  in  their  profession.  In  the  majority  of  cities  a  candidate  to  be 
eligible  for  the  position  of  art  director  must  be  a  graduate  of  a  normal 
art  school  and  have  had  experience  in  teaching.  In  New  York,  in  addi- 
tion to  technical  training,  three  years'  experience  in  actually  doing  super- 
visory work  forms  one  of  the  requirements,  while  Boston  demands  three 
years,  Chicago  two,  and  Cincinnati  four  years'  experience  in  teaching  the 
special  subject. 

Six  years  of  grade  teaching  is  accepted  in  New  York  as  an  equiva- 
lent for  three  years'  supervisory  work,  and  four  years  as  a  special  teacher 
of  drawing  is,  in  Chicago,  regarded  as  an  equivalent  for  technical  train- 
ing at  an  art  school.  In  the  larger  cities,  candidates  are  required  to 
take  a  competitive  examination  in  technical  work,  the  history  of  art,  the 
theory  and  practice  of  design,  and  methods  of  supervision. 

From  this  review  it  will  be  seen  that  the  art  work  is  directed  by  a 
body  of  people  who  enter  upon  their  duties  as  teachers  of  experience,  with 
a  professional  training  bearing  directly  upon  the  subjects  to  be  supervised. 


134  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

STATE    SUPERVISION. 

In  two  States  only,  Massachusetts  and  New  York,  is  the  art  work 
under  the  direction  of  a  State  director  or  agent  for  the  promotion  of 
art  education.  State  supervision  has  existed  in  Massachusetts  for  many 
years.  The  State  director  reports  the  features  of  State  supervision 
to  be  as  follows:  "I.  Conferences  with  supervisors  where  subjects 
are  assigned  and  discussed.  The  result  of  the  spring  conferences 
on  High  School  work  will  be  a  high  school  course  of  study — a  summary 
of  the  discussions.  II.  Teachers'  Institutes.  Lectures  on  phases  of  art 
work,  showing  practical  application  to  school  work.  III.  Institutes  for 
superintendents  of  cities,  towns,  and  districts.  IV.  Institutes  for  manual 
training  supervisors  and  teachers.  V.  Meetings  of  normal  schools,  art 
and  manual  training  teachers  at  large  museums  and  normal  schools.  VI. 
Conferences  at  normal  schools  of  supervisors  with  teachers  of  drawing 
and  manual  training.  The  object  of  these  meetings — a  better  under- 
standing of  each  other's  work  and  more  unity." 

The  report  from  Massachusetts  also  states  that  there  are  eleven 
thousand  one  hundred  and  three  elementary  schools  in  the  State.  The 
number  of  supervisory  teachers  employed  is  one  hundred  and  sixty-eight. 
Throughout  the  State  their  visits  to  schools  in  rural  districts  are  made 
every  week.  In  the  large  cities  the  visits  occur  less  frequently,  in  some 
averaging  but  four  to  six  a  year. 

The  State  Supervisor  of  Massachusetts  also  reports  under  the  head- 
ing. Training  of  Pupils,  as  follows : 

"In  large  cities  the  teachers  take  their  classes  to  the  museum.  There 
are  special  Saturday  classes  held  at  the  museum.  Sometimes  a  high 
school  student  is  selected  to  take  a  course  of  museum  lectures,  and  that 
student  files  a  report,  for  the  use  of  fellovv  students.  Free  lectures  for 
normal  schools  are  given  by  museum  directors  at  the  schools.  There  are 
also  circulating  exhibits  of  pictures." 

The  principal  incentive  toward  higher  standards  of  work  is  the 
commercial  value  of  the  work  done,  and  the  desire  to  possess  such  work 
either  for  self  or  for  the  home.  Especially  capable  pupils  receive  free 
instruction  in  art  schools  on  Saturday  and  also  after  school  hours.  The 
work  done  in  these  special  classes  covers  every  phase  of  the  manual  arts. 
The  report  further  states  that  the  time  given  to  drawing  and  constructive 
work  varies  throughout  the  State,  from  one-half  hour  to  four  hours  a 


COMMUNAL   EXERCISE,   EIGHTH    YEAR,  ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS, 
NEW    YORK,    N.    Y. 
This  iiiano  cover  is  the  work  of  a  group  of  pupils. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  ART  TEACHING.  137 

week.  A  uniform  course  of  study  is  not  planned  for  the  State,  The 
work  done  in  the  various  towns  and  cities,  however,  is  generally  along  the 
same  lines,  with  variations  in  minor  details  only. 

Throughout  the  State  there  are  a  few  art  societies.  These  organi- 
zations have  decorated  school  buildings,  and  are  looking  toward  the 
improvement  of  school  grounds,  higher  standards  of  architecture  for 
school  buildings,  as  well  as  more  tasteful  furnishings  and  equipment  of 
school  rooms.  The  question  of  school  room  decoration  has  received 
attention  generally.  The  subject  has  been  presented  to  the  teachers  by 
means  of  lectures  illustrated  by  stereopticon  views  or  by  large  drawings. 
The  decorations  are  generally  school  property.  Exhibitions  are  held 
once  or  twice  a  year,  and  consist  of  class  work  as  well  as  selected 
examples. 

The  report  from  the  State  Supervisor  of  Drawing  and  Manual 
Training  in  New  York  notes  the  following: 

"The  State  Education  Department  has  prepared  two  syllabi  in  draw- 
ing; one  to  be  used  as  a  guide  in  the  grades,  training  classes,  training 
schools,  normal  schools,  and  teachers'  institutes ;  and  one  for  high  schools 
and  academies.  It  is  expected  that  drawing  will  be  taught  in  the  grades 
in  all  schools,  rural  and  city,  but  at  present  no  examination  in  drawing  is 
required  for  an  elementary  certificate  issued  by  the  State.  It  is  also 
expected  that  drawing  will  be  taught  in  all  high  schools,  but  pupils  may 
graduate  without  it. 

'"Students  who  are  preparing  for  training  or  normal  schools  must 
take  drawing  continuously  for  the  four  years  of  the  high  school  course, 
and  have  adequate  instruction  for  at  least  two  hundred  and  twenty-eight 
periods,  and  must  pass  examinations  before  they  can  graduate,  except 
those  from  normal  schools.' 

Candidates  to  be  eligible  for  supervisory  positions  throughout  the 
State  of  Xew  York  must  be  high  school  graduates,  must  have  completed 
a  course  in  a  professional  school,  and  must  receive  seventy-five  per  cent, 
in  an  examination  given  by  the  State. 

The  time  given  to  drawing  and  constructive  work  varies  in  the 
State  from  one  to  two  hours  a  week.  The  question  of  school  room 
decoration  has  received  attention  generally.  The  State  Education  Depart- 
ment loans  pictures,  and  various  organizations  hold  exhibitions  of  pictures 
in  several  centres  throughout  the  State. 


138  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  Drawing  Teachers'  Club,  a  State  organization,  meets  annually 
to  hear  papers  read,  to  discuss  various  art  topics,  and  to  hold  an  exhibition 
of  pupils'  work.  Besides  this  yearly  exhibition,  traveling  exhibitions  are 
sent  to  various  towns  and  cities. 

The  work  of  a  State  supervisor  is  of  necessity  largely  directive. 
He  works  through  the  supervisory  teachers,  and  endeavors  to  so  raise 
the  standards  of  work  in  high  and  normal  schools  as  to  insure  from  grad- 
uates of  the  latter  schools,  grade  teachers  Vv^ho  are  in  sympathy  with  the 
work  and  better  prepared  to  teach  it. 

DIRECTORS  AND  SUPERVISORS  IX   CITIES^  TOWNS,   AND  DISTRICTS. 

In  the  larger  cities,  like  New  York,  Chicago,  Boston,  St.  Louis,. 
Indianapolis,  Philadelphia,  New  Orleans,  Cincinnati,  the  work  is  carried 
on  by  directing  officers  and  assistants  or  by  several  supervisors  of  equal 
rank.  In  New  York  there  are  three  directors  and  fifty  assistants.  Boston 
has  one  director  and  four  assistants;  Philadelphia,  one  director  and  eight 
assistants ;  Cleveland,  one  director  and  three  assistants ;  Hartford,  three 
supervisors,  with  five  assistants ;  Buffalo,  one  director  and  four  assistants ; 
Indianapolis,  one  director  and  three  assistants.  In  Chicago  there  are 
four  supervisors,  in  Cincinnati  there  are  eight,  and  in  New  Orleans  five. 
In  the  cities  noted,  the  size  of  the  districts  supervised  varies  much.  In 
Chicago  the  districts  are  the  largest,  numbering  sixty-two  schools  in  each, 
with  thirteen  hundred  teachers.  In  other  cities,  the  districts  average 
from  three  to  five  hundred  teachers. 

In  cities  like  Newark,  Springfield,  Yoiikers  there  are  frequently  two, 
or  even  three,  supervisory  teachers,  but  generally  one  is  employed.  In 
smaller  cities  the  supervisory  teacher  frequently  teaches  the  drawing  in 
the  high  school  in  addition  to  directing  the  work  in  the  elementary  schools. 
At  times  one  supervisor  is  employed  to  direct  the  art  work  in  three  or 
four  towns  or  in  several  rural  schools. 

In  almost  all  of  the  reports  the  statements  show  that  the  schedules 
of  the  supervisory  teachers  are  so  arranged  as  to  repeat  at  regular  inter- 
vals. It  is  not  possible  to  average  the  number  of  these  visits  during  a 
term,  because  their  frequency  depends  altogether  on  the  number  of  teachers 
to  be  supervised.  In  Boston,  with  four  assistants,  each  supervising  the 
work  of  about  four  hundred  and  seventy-five  teachers,  visits  are  made 
to  each  school  three  or  four  times  a  vear.     The  schedules  are  made  out 


ORGANIZATION  OF  ART  TEACHING.  141 

for  three  months,  and  distributed  to  the  various  schools.  In  Chicago, 
where  each  of  the  four  supervisors  has  thirteen  hundred  teachers  in  a 
district,  the  visits  must  necessarily  be  very  infrequent,  and  are  not  made 
at  stated  intervals.  Indianapolis  reports  visits  six  times  a  year.  In 
Cleveland,  where  there  are  four  himdred  and  twenty-five  teachers  to  a 
district,  visits  are  made  four  or  five  times  a  year. 

In  Xew  York,  where  the  districts  number  from  three  to  four  hun- 
dred teachers,  the  schedules  are  made  out  at  the  beginning  of  each  term. 
So  far  as  possible  these  are  made  to  repeat  at  regular  intervals,  and  in  many 
cases  on  the  same  day  of  the  week.  The  larger  schools  are  visited  every 
other  week,  and  the  smaller  schools  every  three  weeks  or  once  a  month. 
The  time  given  to  each  school  is  made  dependent  on  the  number  of 
teachers  in  the  school,  so  each  receives  her  just  proportion  of  the  super- 
visory teacher's  attention.  St.  Louis  reports  visits  made  once  in  five  weeks. 
New  Orleans  once  in  twenty  days,  Philadelphia  every  five  to  six  weeks. 
Of  the  other  cities  reporting,  the  visits  may  be  roughly  averaged  as  once 
in  three  or  four  weeks. 

DUTIES   OF  SUPERVISORS  OR  DIRECTORS. 

Generally  speaking,  these  officers  are  called  upon  to  plan  the  course 
of  study  in  their  department ;  on  them,  also  falls  the  responsibility  of  see- 
ing that  its  provisions  are  carried  out.  They  are  employed  primarily  as 
teachers  of  teachers,  and  in  this  connection  find  it  necessary,  in  addition 
to  their  class  room  visits,  to  hold,  after  school  hours,  teachers'  conferences 
and  to  conduct  teachers'  classes. 

Teachers'  conferences  are  held  usually  at  the  beginning  of  each 
school  term,  and  at  stated  intervals  during  the  term.  At  these  meetings 
the  provisions  of  the  course  of  study  are  explained,  discussed,  and  illus- 
trated, and  work  is  planned  for  several  weeks  or  months;  as  a  rule,  no 
technical  work  is  done  by  the  attending  teachers. 

It  is,  however,  essential  for  success  that  grade  teachers  become 
acquainted  with  the  technical  processes  involved  in  their  grade  work  in 
drawing  and  construction.  In  order  to  give  them  the  necessary  skill, 
meetings  are  held,  where  the  teachers  actually  do  the  work  they  are 
required  to  teach.  Thus  are  given  lessons  in  object  and  illustrative  draw- 
ing, in  construction  and  design.  Sometimes  but  a  single  one  of  these 
periods  is  devoted  to  a  given  principle,  or  the  use  of  a  certain  medium, 


142  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

but  frequently  several  lessons  in  one  subject  follow  each  other,  at  com- 
paratively short  intervals.  As  a  rule,  teachers'  lessons  are  given  to  the 
teachers  of  certain  years  or  grades,  that  the  work  may  be  made  very 
specific  and  directly  helpful. 

A  limited  number  of  these  teachers'  meetings  are,  in  most  cities, 
obligatory.  In  several  cities  the  teachers  are  called  three  or  four  times 
a  year,  in  many  they  are  required  to  attend  monthly  meetings.  Besides 
the  obligatory  meetings  there  are  optional  meetings  held  at  the  call  of 
the  supervisor,  for  specific  grades  or  for  inexperienced  teachers. 

SCHOOL  VISITS. 

The  reports  show  that  the  work  done  by  supervisors  during  class 
room  visits  is  planned  practically  on  the  same  lines.  The  class  work  is 
examined  and  criticised  by  the  supervising  teacher.  New  work  is  sug- 
gested, and  where  such  assistance  is  necessary  model  lessons  are  given  to 
the  pupils.  The  chief  purpose  of  these  lessons  is  to  illustrate  to  the  grade 
teacher  correct  methods  of  presentation  and  correct  standards.  In  some 
cities  the  supervising  teachers  listen  to  lessons  given  by  the  grade  teachers, 
give  criticism  on  these,  and  offer  suggestions  for  improvement. 

The  work  in  the  arts  is  taught  in  nearly  all  cases  by  the  grade 
teachers  from  the  first  through  the  eighth  year.  In  some  cities — New 
York.  Boston.  Indianapolis — the  seventh  and  eighth  year  pupils  in  a 
majority  of  the  schools  are  taught  by  grade  teachers,  each  of  whom 
teaches  one  or  two  subjects  only.  This  is  known  as  "departmental"  teach- 
ing. In  Chicago  the  subject  is  taught  in  any  grade  of  the  elementary 
schools  by  departmental  teachers,  at  the  discretion  of  the  principal  of  the 
school.  Several  other  cities — Philadelphia,  San  Francisco,  St.  Louis,  Cin- 
cinnati, and  others — report  the  class  work  taught  very  generallv  bv  the 
grade  teachers. 

RECORD  KEEPING. 

A  record  of  the  work  seen  is  usually  kept  by  the  supervisor  in  note 
')ook  form.  This  record  comprises  the  material  from  which  required 
reports  of  work  are  compiled.  Such  reports  are  filed  every  month  in 
several  of  the  cities  and  in  others  once  each  year.  In  Boston,  in  addition 
to  the  note  book  record,  a  card  catalog  record  is  kept,  showing  sug- 
gestions   regarding    subject    matter,  methods,  results,  material,  and  new 


ORGANIZATION  OF  ART  TEACHING.  145 

experiments.  In  New  York  a  very  systematic  method  of  record  keeping 
is  followed.  By  means  of  a  uniform  system  of  marking,  each  visit  to  a 
class  is  noted,  the  character  of  the  work  marked,  instruction  to  class 
teachers  and  to  pupils  recorded,  and  promises  to  give  lessons  entered. 
Thus  from  a  single  page  of  a  supervisory  teacher's  note  book  may  be 
gleaned  all  tlie  desired  information  regarding  any  one  school. 

COURSE  OF   STUDY. 

The  time  given  to  the  arts  varies  very  much  in  different  cities. 
These  variations  are  in  their  way  an  indication  of  the  relative  value 
placed  on  the  subjects  of  drawing  and  manual  work  in  the  cities  repre- 
sented in  the  report.  In  San  Francisco,  Buffalo,  Albany,  Detroit,  and  a 
few  others  one  hour  a  week  is  set  aside  in  all  grades,  from  the  first 
through  the  eighth,  for  the  teaching  of  ihe  arts.  In  Chicago,  ninety 
minutes  each  week  is  given  to  drawing  in  all  the  grades,  and,  in  addi- 
tion to  this,  in  the  first  and  second  years,  one  hundred  and  fifty  minutes 
are  given  to  manual  training,  while  in  the  third,  fourth,  fifth  and  sixth 
years  the  time  given  to  constructive  work  amounts  to  ninety  minutes,  and 
in  the  seventh  and  eighth  years  it  increases  to  one  hundred  and  eighty 
minutes.  This  schedule  shows  an  evident  emphasis  on  the  value  of  con- 
structive work.  The  records  note  Boston  as  devoting  two  and  one-half 
hours  to  drawing  and  constructive  work  in  the  first  year,  three  hours 
in  the  second,  third,  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  years,  and  five  hours  each 
week  in  the  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  years.  This  is  the  largest  propor- 
tion of  time  given  in  any  city  to  the  teaching  of  the  arts. 

In  New  York  two  hours  a  week  are  given  to  drawing  and  con- 
structive work  in  the  first,  second,  and  third  years ;  three  hours  in  the 
fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  years,  and  two  and  two-thirds  hours  in  the  seventh 
and  eighth  years.  Indianapolis  reports  one  hundred  and  twenty-five 
minutes  in  the  first,  second,  and  third  years ;  one  hundred  and  thirty  min- 
utes in  the  fourth  year;  one  hundred  and  fifty  minutes  in  the  fifth  and 
sixth  years,  and  one  hundred  and  seventy  minutes  in  the  sev^enth  and 
eighth  years.  Philadelphia  reports  one  hundred  minutes  each  week 
given  to  drawing  and  constructive  work  in  the  first  four  years  with  an 
additional  twenty  minutes  in  the  last  four  years. 


146 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


The   following'  tabulated   list  shows  the  time  per  week  allotted  to 

drawing  and  constructive  work  in  the  cities  noted : 

City.  State,  i  yr.  2  yr.  3  yr.  4  yr.  5  yr.  6  yr.  7  yr.  8  yr.      9  yr. 

Albany     N.  Y.  ih.  ih.  ih.  ih.  ih.  ih.  ih.  ih. 

Auburn    N.  V.  901TI.  90m.  90m.  90m.  90m.  90m.  goxn.  90m. 

Binghaniton    N.  Y.  ih.  ili.  ih.  ih.  i^ah.  1V2I1.  2h.  2h. 

Boston Mass.  2'^h.  3h.  ah.  3h.  3h.  sh.  5h.  5h. 

Buffalo    N.  Y.  ih.  ih.  ih.  ih.  ih.  ih.  ih.  ih. 

Cambridge    Mass.  8oin.  80m.  80m.  Som.  80m.  80m.  80m.  8o'.n. 

Chicago    Ill-  240m.  240m.  240m.  i8om.  i8om.  i8om.  270m.  270m. 

Cincinnati    Ohio.  2h,  2h.  90m.  90m.  6oni.  60m.  60m.  6oni.        60m. 

Cleveland    Ohio.  loom.  loom.  loom.  loom.  90m.  90m.  90m.  9am. 

Davenport     la.  loom.  loom.  loom.  75m.  75m.  75m.  75m.  75m.        75^1. 

Denver    Col.  loom.  loom.  90m.  gom.  90m.  90m.  90m.  90m. 

Detroit    Mich.  ih.  ih.  ih.  ih.  ih.  ih.  ih.  ih. 

Everett    Mass.  ih.  ih.  ih.  ih.  2h.  2h.  2h.  2h.  •           ih. 

Hartford     Conn.  105m.  105m.  105m.  105m.  105m.  120m.  120m.  120m.    150m. 

Grand   Rapids    Mich.  1 5oni.  isoni.  150m.  200111.  200m.  200m.  20oni. 

Indianapolis    Ind.  125m.  125m.  125m.  i3oni.  150m.  150m.  i7oni.  170m. 

Jersey   City    N.J.  90m.  9oni.  90m.  90m.  90m.  90m.  goin.  90m. 

Joliet     111.  75ni.  75ni.  loom.  looni.  loom.  loom.  loom.  loom. 

Kalamazoo    Mich.  150m.  150m.  150m.  135m.  75m.  75m.  75m.  75m.      i8oni. 

Lowell    Mass.  60m.  6om.  60m.  60m.  6om.  60m.  6om.  60m. 

^lalden    Mass.  loom.  100m.  loom.  loom.  loom.  loom.  icom.  loom. 

^Milwaukee    Wis.  60m.  6om.  6om.  60m.  60m.  60m.  60m.  6om. 

Montclair    N.J.  3h.  3h.  3h.  3h.  2i4h.  zy^h.  2i/^h.  2j4h. 

Newton    Mass.  90m.  90m.  90m.  90m.  90m.  90m.  90m.  90m.        90m. 

New  Orleans    La.  2h.  2h.  2h.  2h.  2h.  2h.  2h.  2h. 

New    Rochelle    N.  Y.  loom.  60m.  60m.  60m.  60m.  60m.  90m.  90m. 

New    York    N.  Y.  120m.  120m.  120m.  i8om.  i8om.  i8om.  i6om.  i6om. 

Orange    N.  T.  6oni.  6om.  60m.  60m.  60m.  6om.  6om.  60m. 

Passaic    N.J.  75m.  7Sm.  75m.  75m.  75m.  75m.  75m. 

Pliiladeljihia    Pa.  loom.  loom.  loom.  loom.  120m.  120m.  120m.  120m. 

I'ittshurg     Pa.  xoom.  loom.  loom.  loom.  loom.  loom.  100m.  100m. 

Reading    Pa.  60m.  60m.  60m.  60m.  60m.  60m.  60m.  60m. 

Schenectady    N.  Y.  60m.  60m.  105m.  105m.  105m.  losm.  90m.  90m. 

Springfield     Mass.  60m.  90m.  120m.  150m.  105m.  210m.  210m.  210m.    210m. 

San   Francisco    Cal.  60m.  60m.  60m.  60m.  60m.  60m.  60m.  60m.        60m. 

St.   Louis   Mo.  loom.  loom.  loom.  90m.  90m.  90m.  90m.  90m. 

Syracuse    N.  Y.  60m.  60m.  60m.  60m.  60m.  60m.  60m.  60m. 

Toledo    Ohio.  120m.  120m.  120m.  120m.  135m.  135m.  135m.  135m. 

L'tica    N.  Y.  ioni.  50m.  50m.  50m.  50m.  5oni.  70m.  6nm.         ~5m. 

Wellesley    Mas';.  90m.  90m.  90m.  90m.  90m.  120m.  i8om.  180m.     i8om. 

Y  onkers    N.  V.  6oni.  6om.  6om.  60m.  6om.  60m.  6om.  6om.        60m. 

.M.\X.\ER  I.V   WHICH   courses  of  study  are  ISSUED. 


In  the  laro;-er  cities  the  course  of  study  is  issued  in  printed  form, 
either  in  a  pamphlet  containing  the  work  for  all  grades,  or  in  separate 
leaflets,  one  for  each  grade  or  year.  In  Xew  York,  in  addition  to  the 
syllabus  issued  with  the  general  course  of  study,  a  more  detailed  outline 
is  prepared  by  the  directors  of  the  various  boroughs.  For  Manhattan 
and  the  Bronx  a  suggestive  schedule  of  lessons  for  each  grade  is  printed 
on  a  se])arate  leaflet.  These  schedules  outline  the  lessons  for  each  week 
of  the  term,  but  the  lessons  as  noted  are  not  mandatory.  A  sheet  of 
<lra\vings  showing  patterns  for  constructive  work  illustrates  the 
lesson  outlines  for  the  first  four  years.     Illustrated  leaflets  on  design  and 


ORGANIZATION  OF  ART  TEACHING.  149 

working  drawings  accompany  the  lesson  outlines  for  the  highest  grades. 
In  the  other  borqughs  the  detailed  outlines  are  typewritten  or  hekto- 
graphed,  and  these  are  at  times  illustrated  by  hektographed  drawings 
furnished  by  the  supervising  teacher  for  her  particular  district.  In 
Chicago  the  course  of  study  is  printed  in  general  outline  form,  with  the 
regular  course  of  study  for  all  subjects.  Its  provisions  are  very  elastic, 
and  offer  ample  opportunity  for  individual  work.  This  general  outline 
is  in  every  case  supplemented  by  detailed  suggestions,  prepared  by  the 
supervisors  in  hektographed  or  typewritten  form,  for  the  lessons  for  each 
month.  In  Boston  the  course  of  study  is  issued  in  printed  pamphlets  twice 
a  year,  and  its  requirements  are  illustrated  by  exhibitions  held  at  certain 
centers  before  the  work  is  done. 

In  St.  Louis  the  course  of  study  is  printed  each  year,  in  pamphlet 
form,  but  is  not  illustrated.  Indianapolis,  Pittsburgh,  Buffalo,  and 
Denver  also  issue  printed  courses  of  study,  which  are  not  accompanied 
by  illustrations.  Yonkers,  N.  Y.,  has  a  printed  course  of  study  illustrated 
with  examples  of  children's  work  in  half  tones.  Hartford,  Conn.,  issues 
a  printed  course  of  study,  showing  the  general  requirements  for  each 
grade,  and  also  sends  a  monthly  typewritten  schedule  giving  detailed  in- 
formation. The  Philadelphia  course  of  study  is  printed  in  pamphlet  form, 
the  first  and  second  grades  together,  and  the  third,  fourth,  fifth,  sixth, 
seventh  and  eighth  grades  in  a  second  booklet.  It  is  illustrated  with 
definite  suggestions  for  design  and  working  drawings.  In  Reading,  Pa., 
the  course  of  study  appears  in  book  form  without  illustrations.  In  the 
smaller  cities  the  course  of  study  is  generally  put  forth  in  typewritten 
form  for  the  month  or  term.  It  is  illustrated  at  teachers'  meetings  by 
drawings  made  by  the  supervising  teacher  or  by  examples  of  children's 
work  showing  the  desired  standards. 

USE  OF  DRAWING   BOOKS. 

The  returns  show  a  very  decided  decrease  in  the  use  of  drawing 
books  by  the  pupils.  The  majority  of  cities  noting  the  use  of  drawing 
books  by  the  pupils  refer  to  these  as  text  books  for  reference  only.  They 
are  sometimes  furnished  by  the  pupils,  but  frequently  supplied  by  the 
schools.  Drawing  books  in  which  the  pupils  make  their  drawings  are 
practically  not  in  use,  separate  sheets  of  drawing  paper  having  taken 
their  place.     This  would  seem  to  indicate  that  supervisors  are  framing 


I50  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

courses  of  study  in  drawing  to  meet  the  needs  of  their  pupils,  and  to 
relate  to  the  general  course  of  study  which  is  followed  in  their  particular 
town  or  city. 

AGENCIES  EMPLOYED  TO  PROMOTE  ART  APPRECIATION. 

The  supervisors  and  directors  of  drawing  have  realized  the  impor- 
tance of  extending  the  art  influence  beyond  the  schools.  They  have  in 
many  instances  succeeded  in  gaining  the  co-operation  of  museum  authori- 
ties ;  they  have  caused  the  foundation  of  various  art  associations  among 
the  teachers,  have  interested  the  parents,  and  by  means  of  lectures  and 
exhibitions  have  made  known  the  aims  and  standards,  as  well  as  the  value 
of  the  work  in  drawing  and  related  subjects. 

In  most  of  the  cities  where  there  is  an  art  museum  the  pupils  in  the 
higher  grades  of  elementary  schools  visit  the  galleries  once  or  twice  a 
year  with  the  grade  teacher  or  the  supervisor  of  drawing.  In  some 
instances  the  museum  authorities  have  issued  teachers'  tickets,  which 
secure  admission  for  teachers  and  pupils  at  any  time.  In  Chicago,  111., 
and  Toledo,  Ohio,  the  exhibitions  of  school  work  are  held  in  the  art 
museums  of  the  city.  In  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  the  Museum  of  Science  and 
Art  offers  annual  prizes  for  the  best  essays  on,  and  drawings  of 
archseoiogical  objects,  thus  encouraging  visits  to  the  museum.  In  Boston 
some  of  the  museum  material  may  be  borrowed  by  the  schools. 

INCENTIVES   OFFERED  TO   PUPILS. 

Generally  speaking,  prizes  are  not  offered  to  individuals  as  incen- 
tives to  higher  standards  of  work.  In  Hartford,  Conn.,  an  annual  art 
prize  in  the  form  of  a  reproduction  of  a  masterpiece  is  offered  to  the 
school  holding  the  best  record  in  drawing. 

In  several  cities  scholarships  are  maintained  in  the  art  schools  for 
pupils  showing  unusual  ability.  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  stands  first  in  this 
respect,  where  one  hundred  and  fifty  scholarships  are  awarded  annually 
by  the  Board  of  Education  for  tuition  in  the  three  art  schools  of  the  city. 
The  Buffalo  Art  Students'  League  offers  four  scholarships  yearly  to  the 
pupils  in  Buffalo.  X.  Y. ;  Hartford,  Conn.,  maintains  a  certain  number  of 
scholarships  for  its  elementary  school  pupils,  and  Chicago  reports  scholar- 
ships '"maintained  by  several  individuals  in  the  private  art  schools  of  the 
citv." 


ORGANIZATION  OF  ART  TEACHING.  IS3 

The  returns  show  that  in  all  cities,  pupils  of  ability  are  assisted  by 
the  supervisor  and  encouraged  to  continue  their  studies  in  local  or  other 
art  schools.  Special  craft  classes  are  held  after  school  hours  in  many 
cities.  In  Xew  York  the  work  of  these  classes  has  been  exhibited  in  the 
galleries  of  the  National  Arts  Club,  in  connection  with  the  exhibition  of 
the  Municipal  Art  Society.  The  work  included  stenciling,  block  printing, 
bookbinding,  tooled  leather  and  metal.  In  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  the  special 
classes  are  instructed  in  perspective  drawing  and  pictorial  and  decorative 
composition.  In  Yonkers,  N.  Y.,  the  pupils  work  in  charcoal  from  still 
life  and  also  in  water  color.  In  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  classes  have  been 
formed  for  outdoor  sketching,  weaving,  basketry,  and  metal  work.  In 
Montclair,  X.  J.,  the  shop  and  modeling  rooms  are  open  after  school 
hours  and  much  work  is  done.  In  Dayton,  Ohio,  classes  have  been 
formed  in  leather  and  metal  w^ork,  clay  modeling,  weaving,  and  drawing 
from  cast, 

THE  EDUCATION   OF   THE   PUBLIC. 

Without  exception  the  reports  from  the  various  cities  note  the  fact 
that  exhibitions  of  pupils'  work  in  drawing,  construction,  and  design  are 
considered  an  essential  part  of  the  art  work.  In  the  great  majority  of 
instances  the  general  exhibitions  are  held  annually,  and  local  exhibitions 
in  separate  schools  are  held  at  frequent  intervals.  In  New  York,  large 
single  or  double  district  exhibitions  occur  yearly,  while  in  separate  schools 
it  is  usual  to  hang  the  pupils'  work  at  the  end  of  each  school  term  or  twice 
a  year.  Parents"  meetings  are  held  at  stated  intervals  during  the  term, 
and  a  display  of  work  in  drawing,  construction,  and  design  always  forms 
a  feature  of  these  meetings.  Boston,  Mass. ;  Cleveland,  Ohio ;  Toledo, 
Ohio;  Reading,  Pa.;  St.  Louis,  Mo.;  Montclair,  N.  J.,  and  many  others 
all  report  yearly  exhibitions.  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  notes  several  each  year. 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  refers  to  the  fact  that  exhibitions  are  held  very  fre- 
quently. In  other  cities,  like  Springfield,  Mass. ;  Utica,  N.  Y. ;  Everett, 
Mass.,  the  exhibition  occurs  once  in  two  or  three  years.  It  is  interesting 
to  note  that  in  comparatively  few  instances  are  these  exhibitions  made 
up  of  selected  examples  only.  As  a  rule  the  selected  work  is  hung  on 
the  walls  and  class  work  is  shown  in  books  placed  on  tables.  In  New 
York  it  is  the  custom  to  exhibit  class  work  only,  a  dozen  to  twenty 
examples  from  each  exercise  being  shown. 


154  ^^T  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  returns  evidence  a  marked  change  in  the  attitude  of  supervisors 
toward  the  exhibition.  They  mark  an  appreciation  of  the  grade  teacher's 
protests  against  the  showing  of  standards,  impossible  for  the  average 
child  to  reach — the  case  where  only  selected  examples  are  seen.  The 
desire  to  encourage  and  inspire,  rather  than  to  discourage  and  awe,  has 
resulted  in  changing  the  character  of  the  exhibition  from  a  few  selected  ex- 
amples to  many,  showing  possible  and  attainable  standards.  It  is  a  notice- 
able fact  also  that  the  grade  teacher  has  been  led  to  take  an  active  interest 
in  the  hanging  of  these  exhibitions,  for  in  almost  every  city  reporting, 
the  grade  teacher  assists  the  directing  officer  in  mounting  and  binding  the 
work  to  be  shown. 

ART   LECTURES   AND   ART   EXHIBITIONS. 

Many  cities  report  lectures  to  teachers  and  pupils  on  art  topics,  and 
others,  art  exhibitions  held  in  various  schools.  Milwaukee,  Wis., 
notes  an  Outdoor  Art  Club  as  interested  in  the  work  of  the  public  schools. 
Trenton,  X.J. ;  Racine,  Wis. ;  Maiden,  Mass. ;  Toledo,  Ohio;  Denver,  Colo. ; 
Hartford.  Conn. ;  Lowell.  Alass. ;  Grand  Rapids,  Mich.,  all  report  the  use 
of  local  art  exhibitions  in  developing  a  keener  appreciation  for  things 
artistic.  In  Joliet,  111.,  the  Joliet  Public  School  Art  Society  owns  a  large 
and  valuable  collection  of  reproductions  of  works  of  art.  These  are  loaned 
to  the  schools.  In  Chicago,  111.,  the  Public  School  Art  Society,  a  private 
organization,  has  made  large  permanent  gifts  and  temporary  loans  of 
pictures  to  various  schools.  It  co-operates  with  the  architects'  department 
of  the  Board  of  Education  in  making  typical  exhibitions  in  selected 
schools.  School  gardens  have  also  received  help  from  private  organiza- 
tions upon  application  from  individual  schools. 

In  New  York,  arrangements  have  been  made  with  the  museum 
authorities  for  the  use  of  the  lecture  room  for  teachers'  meetings  and 
also  the  use  of  museum  material.  The  Public  Education  Society  has  also 
interested  itself  in  the  decoration  of  some  of  the  school  buildings. 
Indianapolis,  Ind.,  notes  co-operation  with  the  Art  Institute  of  that  city. 
In  Dayton,  Ohio,  the  Public  Decorative  Art  Association,  consisting  of 
High  School  pupils,  has  purchased  photographs,  paintings,  Japanese 
prints,  and  casts.  The  great  purchase  is  a  bronze  lion  of  heroic  size,  to 
be  placed  outside  the  High  School  building.  It  was  designed  by  Anna  V. 
Hyatt,  of  Xcw  Yoik_,  and  is  now  being  cast  in  X'aples. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  ART  TEACHING.  157 

Cincinnati,  Ohio,  has  a  stereopticon  in  each  school ;  some  of  the 
slides  are  the  property  of  the  Board  of  Education,  others  are  loaned  by 
the  Public  Library,  the  Art  Museum,  and  private  individuals.  Toledo, 
Ohio,  secures  a  loan  collection  of  photographs  from  the  Public  Library, 
and  these  are  used  for  study  in  the  schools.  The  Toledo  Museum  of  Art 
publishes  the  "Museum  News"  monthly.  The  various  articles  in  a  recent 
number  evidence  a  very  close  and  cordial  co-operation  on  the  part  of 
the  museum  authorities  and  the  public  schools.  In  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  the 
Phiffalo  Society  for  Beautifying  the  Schools  has  assisted  much  in  adding 
to  the  interest  in  fine  school  rooms.  Here,  too,  considerable  use  is  made 
of  the  museum  by  the  school  children.  In  Syracuse,  X.  Y.,  the  Mothers' 
Club  sometimes  presents  a  picture  to  the  school.  The  new  picture  is 
made  the  subject  of  an  art  talk,  to  which  parents,  teachers,  and  pupils  are 
invited.  Auburn,  X.  Y.,  notes  that  lectures  are  given  by  those  who  have 
traveled,  and  each  lecture  is  followed  by  a  social  meeting. 

SCHOOL  ROOM  DECORATION. 

The  subject  of  school  room  decoration  has  received  attention  very 
generally.  In  all  the  cities  where  the  matter  has  been  dealt  with  system- 
atically, the  returns  show  that  the  decorations  are  for  the  most  part 
school  property.  Interest  in  beautifying  school  rooms  has  been  roused 
by  lectures  given  by  the  supervisors  themselves  or  by  artists.  These 
lectures  are  frequently  illustrated  by  stereopticon  views  or  by  exhibitions 
of  good  reproductions  and  casts.  In  Springfield.  Mass..  eleven  thousand 
dollars  has  been  spent  by  the  city  in  decorating  its  school  rooms.  In 
New  York  pictures  may  be  ordered  from  the  school  supply  list,  but  con- 
siderable work  has  been  done  by  individual  principals  and  teachers  in 
decorating  school  halls  and  class-rooms.  In  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  unframed 
pictures  may  be  ordered  from  the  school  list  of  supplies.  In  this  city, 
however,  much  has  been  done  by  private  subscriptions  to  specific  schools, 
in  sums  from  one  hundred  to  five  hundred  dollars.  It  has  become  a  custom 
also,  for  the  graduating  class  in  each  school,  to  present  a  picture  to  the 
school.  In  Indianapolis.  Ind.,  a  committee  appointed  by  the  school  board 
gives  instruction  and  advice  in  the  matter  of  school  room  decoration.  In 
Trenton,  X.  J.,  where  over  seven  thousand  dollars  has  been  spent  in  school 
decoration,  the  money  has  been  raised  in  each  school  by  holding  every 
term,  an  enteitainment  and  fair  to  which  admission  is  charged.     In  Bos- 


158  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

ton,  Mass.,  the  Public  School  Art  League  selects  the  decorations,  but  these 
are  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  supervisor  of  drawing. 

In  Chicago,  111.,  the  architects'  department  in  the  Board  of  Education 
has  assisted  much  in  co-operating  with  the  supervisors  of  drawing.  The 
decorations  are  gifts  to  the  school  or  have  been  purchased  with  the 
proceeds  from  school  entertainments.  In  several  other  cities  the  prac- 
tice maintains  of  giving  school  entertainments  and  using  the  proceeds  to 
purchase  the  pictures  and  casts  for  the  schools. 

ART   ASSOCIATIONS. 

Art  Associations  formed  among  the  teachers  are  reported  as  follows : 

Xew  York. — A  Teachers'  Art  Club,  holding  meetings  at  which  ad- 
dresses are  made  on  general  art  topics. 

Boston,  ^lass. — A  Primary  Association  and  Masters'  Assistants 
Club.  These  are  associations  formed  for  the  discussion  of  general  topics  ; 
art  receives  a  due  proportion  of  time. 

Hartford,  Conn. — An  Arts  and  Crafts  Club,  which  provides  lectures, 
conducts  classes  and  maintains  an  Art  and  Crafts  shop  for  exhibition  and 
sale  of  work. 

Denver,  Col. — The  Teachers'  Club  has  an  Art  Department  and  there 
are  several  Art  Leagues  for  general  advancement  in  art  and  to  assist  in 
school  room  decoration. 

Xew  Orleans,  La. — Art  Teachers'  Association,  which  holds  monthly 
meetings  for  the  purpose  of  discussing  art  subjects  and  fostering  art  proj- 
ects in  the  community. 

Detroit.  Mich. — Public  School  Art  League  formed  for  the  study  of 
the  history  and  criticism  of  art.  The  supervisor  gives  illustrated  lectures, 
which  are  followed  by  discussion. 

Auburn.  X.  Y. — ^Mothers'  Club  and  Art  Research  Club.  The  latter 
an  organization  of  teachers  in  combination  with  local  artists.  ^Meetings 
are  held  and  interest  in  art  promoted  by  means  of  exhibitions,  lectures, 
open  evenings,  etc. 

Chicago,  111. — Several  associations  among  teachers  formed  for  the 
consideration  of  their  school  work  in  art  and  manual  training.  Regular 
meetings  are  held  for  general  discussion  of  these  topics,  and  suggestions 
are  made  relative  to  the  course  of  studv. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  ART  TEACHING.  i6i 

Pittsburg,  Pa. — The  Teachers'  Art  Chib,  formed  for  the  study  of  art 
industry  and  art  literature. 

Paterson,  N.  J- — Arts  and  crafts  clubs,  formed  for  social,  cultural, 
and  educational  purposes.  Classes  are  maintained  in  weaving,  sewing, 
and  other  phases  of  art  work. 

Maiden,  Mass. — Manual  art  classes  for  work  in  copper  and  leather. 

Muskegon,  Mich. — An  association  for  the  study  of  the  history  of 
painting. 

Syracuse,  X.  Y. — Associations  have  been  formed  among  the  teachers. 
These  maintain  classes  in  basketry,  painting  in  water  color  and  per- 
spective drawing. 

Duluth.  Minn. — An  Art  Club.     Teachers  attend  and  draw  from  life. 

Albany,  X.  Y. — A  Teachers'  Association  maintaining  a  class  in 
drawing. 

Binghamton,  X.  Y. — A  Teachers'  Association  formed  for  work  and 
discussion. 

Dayton,  Ohio. — A  Teachers'  Association  maintaining  a  class  in 
drawing. 

SUMMER  SCHOOLS  AND  EXTENSION  COURSES. 

Throughout  the  United  States  there  are  many  centres  where  courses 
are  given  during  the  summer  months,  in  the  various  subjects  related  to 
the  teaching  of  art  in  the  schools.  There  follows  a  partial  list  of  such 
schools  with  a  brief  description  of  the  work  oflFered : 

Xew  York  City. — Columbia  University :  Courses  in  beaten  metal, 
enameling,  mechanical  drawing  and  constructive  design. 

Xew  York  University :  Courses  in  principles  of  supervision,  in 
applied  design,  elementary .  and  advanced  constructive  work,  object 
drawing,  mechanical  drawing,  and  shop  work. 

School  of  Applied  Design  for  Women :  Courses  in  applied  design. 
Art  Students'  League :  Free  hand  drawing  and  painting. 
X'ew  York  School  of  Art :  Free  hand  drawing  and  painting. 
Chautauqua,  X'^.  Y. — Courses    in    free   hand   drawing,  painting  and 
craftwork. 

Cambridge,  Mass. — Harvard  University :  Courses  in  design  and  com- 
position. 

Providence,  R.  I. — Rhode  Island  School  of  Design :  Courses  in  metal 


i62  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

work,  jewelry,  silversmithing,  design,  out  of  door  sketching;  tooled  and 
modeled  leather;  bookbinding. 

Peoria,  111. — Bradley  Polytechnic  Institute:  Courses  in  applied  art 
and  manual  training. 

Minneapolis,  Minn. — Handicraft  Guild  of  Minneapolis:  Courses  in 
design  and  composition  and  design  applied  to  the  crafts,  metal  work, 
jewelry,  pottery,  leather,  bookbinding,  woodblock  printing,  stenciling. 

Menomonie,  Wis. — Stout  Training  School:  Courses  in  mechanical 
drawing,  cabinet  construction,  primary  handwork,  clay  modeling  and 
pottery. 

Cincinnati,  Ohio. — Art  Academy  of  Cincinnati:  Courses  in  drawing 
and  painting  from  life  and  from  landscape,  modeling,  wood  carving,  china 
painting. 

Detroit,  Mich. — Thomas  Normal  Training  School:  Courses  in  pot- 
tery, clay  modeling,  hammered  or  beaten  metal,  sheet  metal,  Venetian 
iron,  industrial  work,  tooled  leather,  knife  work  and  lathe  work  in  wood, 
pencil  and  charcoal,  perspective,  light  and  shade,  composition  and 
design. 

Los  Angeles,  Cal. — Los  Angeles  College  of  Fine  Arts:  Courses  in 
free  hand  drawing,  outdoor  sketching,  clay  modeling  and  pottery. 

Egerton,  Wis. — School  of  Pottery :  Courses  in  pottery,  tooled  leather, 
stenciling,  and  various  branches  in  arts  and  crafts. 

In  addition  to  the  schools  noted  there  are  scores  of  summer  schools 
of  painting  throughout  the  States.  These  schools  are  located  at  attractive 
centres  for  outdoor  work. 

SUMMARY. 

The  organization  of  art  teaching  in  the  elementary  schools  of  the 
United  States  may  be  summarized  as  follows :  It  is  generally  believed 
that  the  teaching  of  drawing  in  the  elementary  grades  may  be  done  by 
the  grade  teachers  under  systematic  supervision.  The  supervising 
teacliers  ai^c  trained  in  methods  of  teaching  as  well  as  in  their  profession. 
These  supervisory  officers  are  doing  systematic  work  throughout  the 
country.  The  methods  employed  by  them  in  teaching  the  grade  teachers 
are  practically  the  same  everywhere.  They  plan  the  work,  explain  its 
provisions,  and  are  responsible  for  its  successful  completion.     There  is  a 


ORGANIZATION  OF  ART  TEACHING.  163 

general  movement  toward  making  drawing  a  vital  part  of  the  general 
curriculum,  not  a  specialty. 

A  review  of  the  foregoing  report  will  show  that  the  supervisors' 
duties  do  not  end  with  the  successful  carrying  out  of  the  course  of  study. 
They  have  realized  the  importance  of  extending  the  art  influence  to  the 
decoration  of  school  rooms,  school  grounds,  and  school  buildings,  and,  in 
addition,  have  reached  out  still  further,  and  have  secured  the  co-opera- 
tion of  the  parents  and  the  general  public.  The  museum  authorities  have 
been  induced  to  open  wide  the  museum  doors  to  teachers  and  pupils. 
They  have  organized  classes  and  courses  of  lectures  at  the  museum  and 
in  the  schools. 

Various  art  associations  among  the  teachers  and  others  have  been 
formed  at  the  suggestion  of  the  supervisors  of  drawing.  These  associa- 
tions co-operate  in  raising  the  standard  of  taste  generally.  In  some 
instances  the  directors  have  made  it  their  business  to  know  and  to  consult 
the  leading  manufacturers  in  their  town  or  city,  and  the  school  work  has 
been  modified  because  of  the  practical  suggestions  received. 

The  supervisors  in  the  leading  cities  and  towns  the  country  over  are 
known  to  one  another  personally.  The  annual  meetings  of  the  Eastern 
and  Western  Drawing  Teachers'  Associations  are  largely  attended ; 
methods  are  discussed,  experiments  described,  and  exhibitions  held.  The 
best  standards  are  made  known  to  all,  and  criticism  is  freely  given  and 
cheerfully  accepted.  Thus  it  may  be  said  that  the  aim  in  teaching  draw- 
ing throughout  the  United  States  is  based  on  the  same  general  principles : 
first,  to  instill  a  keener  appreciation  of  good  form,  proportion,  and  color, 
as  well  as  to  develop  the  power  .of  representing  these ;  and,  second,  to 
show  the  use  of  the  power  gained  in  illustrating  work  in  other  subjects. 
Drawing  is  thus  fast  becoming  an  essential  and  losing  its  identity  as  a 
specialty. 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 

By  Cheshire  Lowton  Boone. 

THE  status  of  art  teaching  in  the  United  States  has  been  so  shifted 
during  the  past  generation  and  is  still  changing  so  rapidly  that 
any  statement  presenting  an  average  course  of  study  is  almost  impossible. 
If  present  conditions  are  not  all  one  could  desire,  the  outlook  is  bright. 
Teachers  are  coming  to  see  the  urgent  need  for  a  common  basis  for  work 
and  are  making  advances  every  year  in  the  organization  and  unification 
of  instruction  in  drawing  and  design.  This  is,  in  eflfect,  a  process  of 
standardization.  The  methods  which  originated  in  New  England  a  quarter 
of  a  century  ago  descended  from  art  school  practice,  and  imposed  on 
children  the  technical  requirements  which  obtain  in  schools  for  adults. 
Design  at  that  time  was  not  presented  as  a  science.,  or  even  as  an  art — 
it  was  considered  intuitive,  and  only  the  artist  born  was  expected  to  make 
much  use  of  it.  Training  in  taste  or  critical  judgment  was  sporadic  and 
unimportant.  Psychology  had  as  yet  done  little  to  illumine  the  subject 
of  teaching  children  in  the  elementary  school.  Courses  of  study  were 
compiled  or  built  as  logical  sequences  of  problems,  no  one  of  which  could 
well  be  discarded  w'ithout  interrupting  the  development  of  technique. 
Technique  was  the  one  important  thing. 

The  one  contribution  of  psychology  which  has  been  most  valuable  to 
art  teachers  is  the  discovery  that  teaching  from  the  pupil's  standpoint  is 
the  really  efficacious  and  sound  approach.  It  is  now  an  accepted  fact 
that  children  learn  most  readily  in  the  atmosphere  of  their  own  thinking 
and  by  means  of  their  own  natural  vocabulary.  The  moment  drawing 
teachers  accepted  this  truth  it  became  possible  to  teach  the  subject  ade- 
quately; children  had  some  tangible  ideas  with  which  to  begin. 

Drawing  instruction  of  the  present  time  may  be  divided  into  four 
rather  distinct  parts:  Illustrative  drawing,  object  drawing,  design,  and 
mechanical  or  working  drawing.  To  these  must  be  added  a  related  phase, 
picture  study,  which,  in  theory  at  least,  aims  to  illustrate  and  explain  the 


i66  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

application  of  design  and  drawing  in  the  fine  arts.  This  classification  is  a 
generally  accepted  one.  It  has  been  evolved  as  a  result  of  the  attempt 
to  fit  art  instruction  into  the  general  curriculum  and  make  it  not  only  a 
harmonious  element,  but  a  vital  one. 

There  is,  too,  a  decided  tendency  to  co-ordinate  drawing  and  hand- 
work as  two  phases  of  the  manual  arts.  To  accomplish  this,  grammar 
grade  work  has  become  largely  a  teaching  of  object  drawing  and  applied 
design,  because  these  topics  are  of  greatest  use  and  profit  in  connection 
with  shop  work  and  the  crafts.  This  arrangement  leaves  to  the  primary 
school  the  bulk  of  illustrative  drawing,  which  may  be  taught  as  a  form 
of  expression  in  connection  with  school  work  and  outside  interests.  In- 
deed, in  the  first  three  or  four  school  years,  drawing  and  handwork  are 
both  illustrative  and  deal  with  the  same  subject  matter:  the  one  repre- 
senting things  and  events  on  paper,  the  other  developing  them  on  the 
sand  table. 

The  correlation  of  design,  with  mechanical  drawing  and  shop  work, 
continues  in  the  grammar  school  the  coincident  development  of  the  manual 
arts  as  one  subject.  Throughout  the  elementary  grades  many  towns  and 
cities  have  combined  drawing  aYid  manual  training  in  one  department, 
with  a  single  head.'  Where  this  has  not  been  done  there  is  found  the 
inclination  to  relate  the  work  of  the  two  departments  and  to  make  much 
use  of  other  school  work  in  nature  study,  science,  history,  commercial 
geography,  etc. 

The  present  chapter  attempts  to  show  the  content  of  current  courses 
of  study  as  exemplified  in  the  printed  outlines  and  schedules  of  cur  best 
organized  school  systems,  and  to  indicate  the  aims  which  are  either  stated 
or  implied  in  these  courses.  Reference  is  made  to  such  as  are  published 
and  obtainable,  but  much  of  the  material  for  the  discussion  has  been 
drawn  from  study  of  school  exhibitions,  current  articles  and  personal 
correspondence. 

ILLUSTRATIVE  DRAWING. 

Illustrative  drawing  is  a  distinctly  modern  phase  of  the  subject,  re- 
sulting from  the  desire  to  take  hold  of  the  drawing  from  the  pupil's  point 
of  view.     Most  young  children  are  imaginative  to  a  marked  degree,  and 

'As  first  in  Xcw  York  City  in  1897  and  later  in  Boston,  Mass.;  Minneapolis,  Minn.; 
Moiitclair,    X.  J.;   Soiitli   Orange,    X.   J. 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS.  167 

for  a  number  of  years  teachers  have  sought  to  utilize  this  habit,  to  inspire 
their  pupils  to  express  themselves  through  drawings  as  freely  as  they 
naturally  do  through  language.  Dr.  L.  Pallat,  Royal  High  School,  Ber- 
lin, states  that  American  educators  have  it  in  their  educational  scheme  to 
develop  self-expression  and  to  cultivate  taste."  The  latter  effort  he  be- 
lieves the  more  sucessful. 

It  is  the  present  aim  of  most  teachers  to  use  illustrative  drawing  in 
this  way ;  to  develop  aptitude  in  effective  expression  by  graphic  means, 
and  to  build  up  a  power  of  mentally  picturing  common  forms.  It  is  the 
purpose  to  help  children  acquire  a  graphic  vocabulary.  This  conception  of 
drawing  is  similar  to  that  held  in  regard  to  language.  In  the  latter,  pupils 
learn  new  words  from  time  to  time  and  unconsciously  form  a  language 
sense.  Drawing  is  coming  to  be  taught  in  the  same  way.  The  forms 
memorized  are  not  in  themselves  of  great  value,  but  they  become  so  when 
assembled  in  various  combinations,  as  pictures  or  illustrations  which 
state  facts  or  tell  a  plain  story.  Illustrative  drawing  at  its  best,  cul- 
minates in  the  production  of  pictures  full  of  the  sense  of  reality  and  sim- 
ple enough  to  be  emphatic. 

In  order  to  carry  out  the  aims  above  suggested  the  choice  of  subject 
matter  or  topics  is  more  important  than  the  method  of  teaching.  If  chil- 
dren are  exi^ected  to  express  themselves  freely  and  enthusiastically  they 
can  only  do  so  about  a  subject  of  real  interest  and  one  with  which  they 
are  intimately  acquainted.  It  must  usually  be  a  homely  topic,  chosen 
from  among  the  customs  and  activities  of  the  community,  and  should  be 
treated  with  all  the  realism  which  drawing  can  give.'  One  finds  in  cur- 
rent courses  suggestions  like  these — street  scenes,  means  of  transporta- 
tion (wagon,  trolley,  railway,  boat,  automobile),  trades  and  business 
occupations,  sports  and  games,  the  feeding  and  care  of  pets  (rabbits, 
pigeons,  chickens).*  This  sort  of  material  is  rapidly  displacing  isolated, 
stray  topics  of  the  moment  and  the  useless  undramatic,  barren  poems  and 
rhymes  sometimes  suggested  for  illustrative  purposes.  The  former  is 
the  more  vital  matter,  and  demands  by  its  very  nature  a  form  of  instruc- 
tion which  takes  definite  direction  from  the  start  and  makes  each  lesson 
a  real  addition  to  the  study.    Two  ends  are  now  in   the   minds  of  the 

-Conference   before   the  Heilbrun    State   Teachers'   Association.    1906. 

^A  detailed  description  of  the  "center"  method  of  instruction  as  used  in  New  York  City- 
is  given   in  the  Year   Book  of  the   Council   of   Supervisors,   iQOj. 

♦Those  of  Cincinnati,  Ohio;  Boston,  Mass.;  Springfield,  Mass.;  BuflFalo,  N.  Y. ;  Green- 
ville, Ohio;  Training  School,  University  of  Utah,   Salt  Lake  City. 


i68  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

drawing  teachers,  (i)  to  offer  a  body  of  instruction  which  is  homo- 
geneous and  connected,  but  still  free,  and  (2)  to  teach  the  technical  part 
of  drawing  and  design  as  incidentals.  One  finds  no  such  clear  under- 
standing of  the  work  suited  to  the  primary  school,  in  courses  of  even  ten 
years  ago. 

The  more  modern  practice  is  to  plan  the  course  in  drawing  about 
some  central  topic,  similar  to  those  mentioned  above.''  The  first  lessons 
dealing  with  details  of  the  subject  build  up  mental  images  of  thought  and 
action,  which  tend  to  give  a  graphic  vocabulary.  Later  the  isolated  ideas 
are  associated,  and  result  in  pictures  which  tell  something  connectedly. 
This  process,  when  well  used,  tends  to  satisfy  the  first  aim.  It  has  not 
been  generally  followed  in  the  past  because  of  the  persistent  belief  that 
drawing  was  and  should  be  quite  spontaneous,  and  the  spontaneous  work 
of  young  children  looked  so  crude  and  archaic  that  it  could  not  be  art! 
It  took  a  long  time  to  plant  the  conviction  that  drawing  was  to  be  taught 
by  the  same  methods  as  any  other  subject. 

Along  with  the  drawing  of  things  are  taught  the  mechanics  of  repre- 
sentation, the  expression  of  distance,  position,  size,  direction  and  action, 
value  and  composition.  These  help  to  attain  the  second  end.  Technical 
excellence  comes  readily  through  such  processes,  because  the  pupil's  de- 
sires demand  it.  Houses,  vehicles  and  cars  must  stand  and  figures  and 
animals  must  move  in  order  to  produce  an  impression  of  reality  and 
truth. 

The  forerunner  of  pictorial  drawing  was  work  from  the  pose,"  from 
animal  or  landscape.  On  these  topics  was  spent  much  energy  by  children 
who  were  supposed  to  seek  truth  in  the  representation  of  appearances. 
These  exercises  were  altogether  dictated.  Children  were  asked  to  draw^ 
ofttimes  what  the  teacher  saw  and  not  what  they  themselves  observed  or 
wished  to  express.  Early  instruction  in  drawing  was  perhaps  as  thorough 
as  that  of  the  present  time,  but  its  aims  were  ill-chosen.  The  proof  of  this 
is  found  in  the  increased  interest  in  the  subject  by  children  and  the  sure 
position  of  this  work  in  the  elementary  school  curriculum,  at  the  present 
time. 

Reconstruction  is  now  so  far  advanced  that  elementary  teachers  have 

''In  one  school,  ns  an  illustiation.  the  entire  year's  work  centered  in  Early  American 
History.  Colonial  Life  in  Xew  England  and  Virginia.  All  the  reading,  language,  drawing 
and  handwork  contributed  to  a  full  study  of  tlie  subject,  with  results  that  were  most  sat- 
isfactory. 

''Outline   for   Massncluutts.    i8q6.      Xo  mention  of  pose,   animal  or   illustrative   drawing 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS.  171 

reached  certain  conclusions  on  which  they  agree.  The  tendency  is  to- 
ward individual  teaching  under  control  as  compared  with  the  former 
class  instruction.  The  latter  belied  its  name  in  that  it  set  a  pace  for  the 
few  with  talent  and  ignored  the  majority.  Under  such  conditions  a  high, 
average  of  skill  was  impossible.  Now  the  pupil  is  given  all  the  imagina- 
tive freedom  possible,  but  he  is  directed  in  the  use  of  this  freedom.  The 
teacher  endeavors  above  all  to  indicate  plainly  the  desired  result,  and  to 
teach  that  Oriental  restraint  which  causes  the  Japanese  artist  to  save  some 
of  his  ideas  for  another  picture. 

Illustrative  drawing  is  very  generally  taught  in  the  first  three  or 
four  school  years,  when  the  children  are  most  susceptible  to  impressions. 
Almost  all  w-ork  at  this  stage  is  done  from  memory :  children  depict  what 
they  remem.ber  and  think  of,  rather  than  what  they  see  before  them.  The 
most  generally  used  medium  is  colored  crayon,  which  produces  bold.. 
eiTective  pictures  and  places  at  the  pupil's  disposal  a  wide  range  of  color 
in  the  most  compact  and  useful  form.  This  use  of  crayon  is  characteristic 
of  the  new  spirit  pervading  art  instruction,  which  encourages  quick  ex- 
pression with  the  least  possible  interference  of  technique  and  handling 
of  tools.  There  is  much  painting  in  water  color  still,  but  such  work  is 
losing  ground  because  it  is  technically  difficult.  The  brush  is  reserved 
for  exercises  where  tone,  rather  than  action,  is  important. 

OBJECT  DRAWING 

In  theory,  the  nature  and  aim  of  object  drawing  has  been  the  same 
for  the  past  quarter  of  a  century.  Teachers  have  all  had  practically  one 
opinion  as  to  the  results  desired — the  true  representation  of  appearances 
in  form,  size,  texture,  tone  and  position,  including  such  secondary  and 
related  qualities  as  growth,  action,  construction,  etc.  This  is  graphic  ex- 
pression for  descriptive  and  artistic  purposes.  Object  drawing  seeks  to 
cultivate  in  the  pupil  accurate  observation  and  the  memorizing  of  common 
forms  in  their  ordinary  positions  and  surroundings,  and  to  develop  a 
sense  of  the  third  dimension — an  appreciation  of  the  solidity  of  form-  and 
of  balance  and  weight  as  compared  with  movement.  These  aims  seem 
to  be  less  artistic  than  cultural,  though  there  is  no  reason  why  the  two 
motives  may  not  coincide. 

If  the  theory  of  the  past  has  changed  little,  practice  has  improved. 
Current  courses  show  marked  advance  in  the  presentation  of  drawing. 


172  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

There  is  a  tendency  to  teach  a  rapid,  skillful  use  of  drawing  rather  than 
to  make  a  painstaking  study  of  principles.  Less  attention  is  given  to  light 
and  shade  or  texture.  Instruction  is  assisted  by  much  illustrative  material 
and  sketches  on  the  blackboard.  Interesting  models  are  introduced  and 
the  drawings  are  often  used  to.  illustrate  school  papers  in  science,  geog- 
raphy or  history  or  as  contributions  to  school  publications.  Every  possible 
application  of  drawing  to  real  problems  is  made.^ 

Although  object  drawing  as  a  technical  and  artistic  performance 
belongs  to  the  grammar  school  and  is  generally  confined  to  the  years 
between  ten  and  fourteen,  there  are  many  primary  exercises  belonging 
to  this  phase  of  art  teaching.  In  the  discussion  of  illustrative  work  it  is 
implied  that  primary  drawing  is  mostly  illustrative  or  pictorial.  But  in 
the  building  up  of  pictures,  representation  plays  a  large  part.  Children 
must  at  some  stage  learn  to  draw  the  objects  and  things  of  which  their 
pictures  are  composed.  Primary  children  cheerfully  draw  from  memory, 
but  from  the  object  only  when  the  material  set  before  them  seems  worth 
the  effort.  In  other  words,  they  draw  willingly  wdien  they  can  under- 
stand the  vtse  of  such  drawing  and  its  connection  with  their  work  and 
interests.  One  finds  more  and  more  in  present  courses  the  suggestion  to 
teach  the  drawing  of  toys,  trains,  automobiles  and  all  moving  things 
because  the  child  is  interested  primarily  in  things  which  go  and  in  their 
uses.  He  will  depict  with  pleasure  and  confidence  very  complex  mechan- 
isms like  the  engine,  when  he  will  not  draw  turnips,  shoes  or  geometrical 
forms,  as  these  appeal  but  little  to  him. 

Existing  courses  show  a  preponderance  of  drawing  and  painting  of 
landscapes.  Fruit,  flowers  and  other  easily  obtainable  nature  material 
are  also  much  used  as  subjects  for  lessons  in  brush  work.  Perhaps 
because  of  the  ease  with  w'hich  this  material  is  secured,  perhaps  because 
of  the  ease  with  which  it  is  depicted,  the  use  of  it  is  very  common  in  both 
primary  and  grammar  grades.  Water  color,  however,  is  an  almost  im- 
possible medium  for  the  primary  school  and  is  becoming  generally  re- 
placed by  colored  crayon.  The  drawing  and  painting  of  landscape  is 
done  as  mere  representation.  The  pictures  are  very  attractive,  even 
charming.    l)ut    the     striking    effects    secured    are    often    unconscious, 

■Aiigslnnsi's  diawiiij;  books  are  based  uiion  these  ideas.     The  author  states  his  purpose  to  be: 

"To  develop  skill,   freedom  and  speed  in  the  use  of  the  hands. 

To  teach  the   art   of  representing   form   on   a  flat   surface. 

To   give   a   medium    through   which   to   develop   the    imitative,    constructive    and    aesthetic    i:> 

stincts    and   jiowers." 


JAPANESE    SCREENS,    HIGH    SCHOOL,    SPRINGFIELD,    MASS. 


stir 


^ 


■H. 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS.  175 

and  the  fine  gradations  of  tone  and  quality  accidental.  Teachers 
are  making  a  serious  attempt  to  eliminate  from  their  work  all  such 
forms  of  showy,  clever  painting  which  are  not  the  intended  result 
of  the  child's  effort.  Landscape  motifs  are  useful  as  backgrounds  or 
settings  for  pictures  of  people,  animals,  buildings,  etc.,  and  for  this 
purpose  are  coming  to  be  used.  People  and  animals  are  the  real  motifs, 
the  ones  that  tell  the  story. 

Object  drawing  in  the  upper  half  of  the  elementary  school  has  been 
more  systematically  planned  and  executed  than  any  other  phase  of  art 
teaching.  Pure  representation  in  some  guise  must  needs  always  be  the 
backbone  of  any  course  of  study.  Recent  courses  are  not  greatly  different 
in  aim  and  purpose  from  those  of  five,  ten,  fifteen  years  ago,  but  methods 
have  changed.  It  has  always  been  the  desire  of  teachers  to  instruct 
pupils  in  the  skillful  use  of  the  pencil,  crayon  or  brush,  though  formerly  it 
was  sought  to  produce  technically  perfect  drawings  and  not  rapid,  accurate 
sketches.  Drawing  as  a  fine  art  is  in  some  disfavor  save  in  certain 
private  schools  where  the  subject  is  taught  as  an  accomplishment.  It  is 
the  practical,  economic  application  of  the  subject  which  distinguishes  the 
present  course  of  study  from  earlier  ones.  This  utilitarian  ideal  is  but 
natural.  Skill,  aside  from  artistic  uses,  is  only  profitable  if  employed 
in  some  trade  or  business  after  the  school  period  ends.  If  drawing 
would  hold  its  place  in  the  curriculum  it  must  then  show  its  worth  in 
business  life. 

The  average  course  in  object  drawing  includes  pictorial  and  nature 
drawing,  descriptive  drawing,  copying,  and  perspective.  There  is  a  pre- 
ponderance of  the  first  two.  Pictorial  drawing  deals  with  still  life, 
utensils,  familiar  objects  and  geometric  solids.  These  objects  are  depicted 
singly  and  in  groups,  by  means  of  pencil  or  brush.  The  problems  involve 
the  foreshortened  circle  and  the  perspective  of  surfaces.  Pictorial  work 
is  ofttimes  a  study  of  composition  as  well.  The  several  parts  of  a  given 
group  are  either  arranged  by  the  pupils  and  drawn,  or  arranged  by  the 
teacher,  drawn  and  then  inclosed  as  a  composition  in  a  lx>undary.  The 
drawings  are  sometimes  finished  in  flat  tones  of  gray  or  color.  Nature 
drawings  form  a  major  part  of  the  course.  This  drawing  usually  means 
plant  forms.  These  are  as  a  rule  painted  in  full  color,  less  frequently 
executed  in  pencil  and  sometimes  in  decorative  tones  of  gray  or  color.  It 
is  rather  surprising  to  find  so  little  of  the  latter  kind  of  work.     Plant 


176  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

forms  are  inherently  decorative,  and  when  a  bit  conventionalized  by  means 
cl  formal  color,  become  very  beautiful.  In  recent  exhibitions,  however, 
there  have  been  but  few  examples  of  such  work.  Of  other  nature  draw- 
ing, of  trees,  animals  and  people  (pose),  there  is  found  a  little;  some 
trees  in  connection  with  landscape  work  and  a  few  animals  like  the  rabbit, 
chicken,  dog  and  birds.  It  is  not,  however,  often  possible  to  have  live 
animals  in  the  school  room. 

Descriptive  drawing  includes  sketches  of  apparatus,  instruments, 
maps  and  plans.  In  schools  where  drawing  is  an  integral  part  of  the 
course  and  is  used  freely,  there  are  found  sketches  of  electrical  apparatus, 
simple  machines,  drawings  describing  experiments  in  sound,  light,  heat, 
etc. ;  sketches  of  germination  and  the  study  of  soils ;  and  drawing  of 
mensuration  and  geography.*  Much  of  the  descriptive  drawing  verges 
on  the  mechanical.  It  is  essentially  a  kind  of  working  drawing,  but 
executed  as  a  free-hand  sketch  to  illustrate  school  papers. 

One  also  finds  in  some  few  courses  a  little  copying  from  good  ex- 
amples of  pencil  and  pen  work,  and  from  plates  of  historic  ornament. 
The  representation  of  these  and  other  things  from  memory  is  not 
uncommon.  In  general,  drawing  schedules  are  full  of  suggestions  for 
work  which  will  fix  in  the  pupil's  mind  characteristics  of  fundamental 
forms,  and  which  will  develop,  as  in  the  primary  grades,  a  graphic  vocabu- 
lary.    Principles,  rules  and  theory  are  not  emphasized. 

METtlODS   OF   TEACHING  DRAWING. 

As  one  delves  into  old  drawing  manuals  and  courses  of  study,  the 
contrast  with  present  systems  is  striking.  The  models  formerly  used  were 
few  and  small,  too  small  to  be  seen  by  the  whole  class.  They  were  gen- 
erally geometric.  Shading  and  carefully  accented  outline  were  carried  to 
the  extreme.  Perspective  was  taught  through  the  observation  of  small 
models,  in  which  convergence  could  not  be  seen.  Great  value  was  placed 
on  pencil  measurement.  There  was  no  choice  of  models,  but  each  was 
dictated  by  the  teacher  in  the  light  of  a  wisdom  which  had  settled  before- 
hand wdiat  the  class  should  draw,  in  order  to  become  proficient  and  imbued 
with  a  spirit  of  reverence  for  art.  Primary  children  were  not  taught  any 
object  drawing.  They  were  given  books  and  cards  ruled  and  dotted, 
together  with   geometric  figures  and   designs,   for  copies.     The  drawing 

'See   course    of   study    in    tlie    Hebrew   Technical    Institute,    New    York    Citv. 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS.  179 

was  dictated  from  dot  to  dot  after  the  manner  of  modern  kindergarten 
sewing  cards.' 

The  last  few  years  have  witnessed  many  changes  in  methods  of 
teaching.  The  models  used  are  more  interesting.  Both  teachers  and 
pupils  have  found  it  easy  to  produce  brilliant,  impressionistic  renderings 
of  sprays  of  flowers,  fruit,  birds,  insects  and  landscape,  since  the  more 
exacting  standards  of  excellence  have  been  lowered.  This  lowering  has, 
however,  opened  the  way  for  abuses,  which  have  grown  to  no  small  pro- 
portions. Real  ability  to  draw  has  been  impaired.  Technique  has  been 
ridiculed  and  at  times  the  whole  course  of  study  has  produced  only  a  riot 
of  brilliant  flowers,  fruit,  Japanese  lanterns,  and  sunsets.  This  change  from 
the  former  staid,  respectable  and  formal  instruction  has  not  come  sud- 
denly, nor  has  it  affected  all  schools.  Along  with  this  loose  work  there  is 
much  sensible,  conservative  teaching  in  which  the  two  ideals,  old  and  new, 
appear." 

One  element  of  the  present  teaching  is  work  in  mass  rather  than 
outline.  The  model  is  taught  as  a  number  of  areas  definitely  related  in 
size,  form,  tone  and  position.  Formerly  the  pupil  was  led  to  indicate  the 
solid  by  gradation  of  tone  or  shading,  but  he  now  often  suggests  it 
through  the  dift'erence  in  value  of  the  several  planes,  which  themselves 
are  carefully  drawn.  The  correct  representation  of  these  areas  comes 
more  easily  because  of  a  keener  interest  in  the  models  themselves  and 
because  of  a  greater  variety  of  methods  of  rendering  compositions. 

Perspective  and  foreshortening  are  coming  to  be  taught  as  facts 
instead  of  principles.  Teachers  have  discovered  after  a  long  struggle 
that  children  do  not  see  convergence  in  small  objects  and  do  not  always 
associate  principles  with  appearances."  Children  seem  to  regard  perspec- 
tive as  a  truth  which  they  can  exp'ain  but  are  not  able  to  use  when 
needed.  An  inductive  method  of  instruction  seems  to  promise  better 
results.  By  drawing  things  in  different  positions  and  studying  drawings 
which  show  foreshortening  and  convergence,  pupils  gradually  memorize 
a  number  of  objects  involving  the  principle.  They  seem  to  acquire  a  bet- 
ter understanding  of  drawing  through  the  effort  to  make  their  work  look 
like  the  model  than  through  the  application  of  rules.'" 

"See   "Dictation    Lessons   in    Drawing,"    Riickelew.    1878. 

'"See  course  of  study.  Boston.  Mass..  schools,  1907.  It  suggests  much  nature  drawing 
of  a  sensible,  connected  kind.  By  means  of  it  a  good  deal  of  perspective  and  acquaintance 
with  the  third  dimension   are  taught. 

"See  "Freehanti  Drawing  in  the  Public  Schools,'  in  the  69th  Annual  Report  of  Board  of 
Education  of  the   State  of  Massachusetts. 

'-  "Representation  of  the  Third  Dimension."  Sargent  "Sch'iol  .\rts  Book."  Feb.,  March  and 
April,    1903. 


i8o  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Perspective  has  always  been  a  difficult  subject  to  treat  effectively,  and 
though  it  is  still  hard  to  find  in  present  courses  a  consistent  endeavor  to 
teach  the  topic  well,  the  spirit  of  these  courses  implies  the  desire  to  do  so. 
Heretofore  it  has  all  been  taught  in  the  upper  grammar  grades  and  was 
an  idea  quite  new  to  children  until  they  reached  the  grade  where  it  was 
presented.  Now,  the  very  general  use  of  illustrative  drawing  includes 
so  much  of  perspective  and  foreshortening  that  children  become  familiar 
with  these,  and  the  drawing  of  objects  in  the  grammar  grades  comes 
easily  and  naturally.  Illustrative  w'ork,  more  than  any  other  agent,  has 
helped  to  strengthen  object  drawing. 

There  is  a  kind  of  drawing  which  still  remains  in  some  courses, 
living  on  its  reputation  as  a  distant  relative  of  design.  This  is  the  copying 
of  historic  ornament.'''  It  is,  however,  fast  disappearing  as  newer  and 
better  methods  of  teaching  design  are  developed. 

Most  grammar  work  is  done  with  the  pencil,  and  rendered,  if  at  all, 
in  Hat  tones  of  gray  or  color.  The  sketching  of  plant  forms,  animals  and 
groups  of  still  life,  where  mass  is  the  consideration,  is  executed  directly 
with  the  brush,  but  the  pencil  is  the  almost  universal  tool.  The  bulk  of 
grammar  school  drawing  comprises  rapid  sketches  of  objects,  studies  for 
design,  lettering  and  w^orking  drawings  for  the  shop.  The  pencil  is  use- 
ful in  all  this.  There  is  in  all  the  work  a  desire  to  secure  a  high  average 
of  class  work  as  against  the  nursing  of  special  talent.  This  does  not 
handicap  genius,  but  raises  a  real  standard  of  excellence  for  all.  Teach- 
ers are  studying  the  needs  of  the  business  world  and  are  themselves  be- 
ginning to  know  processes  and  the  difficulties  which  confront  the  work- 
man and  the  craftsman.  \Mien  the  skilled  teacher  comes  to  know  what 
the  skilled  mechanic  and  business  man  need,  that  need  is  likely  to  be 
filled  in  the  case  of  object  drawing  as  in  that  of  other  subjects. 

DESIGN. 

It  is  difficult  to  offer  a  picture  of  design  as  presented  in  the  elemen- 
tary school.  The  subject  is  too  new,  and  in  its  best  form  has  been  de- 
veloped within  the  past  half  dozen  years.  Recent  impetus  has  unfolded 
its  possibilities  so  rapidly  and  made  so  manifest  its  practical  value  that 
the  growth  has  been  uneven.  Every  one  attempts  to  teach  it.  Teachers 
without  the  requisite  training  seek  to  supplv  the  demand  for  instruction. 

'"See   courses    Cincinnati,    Ohio;    C'liicsgo,    Ul. 


DRAWING  ROOM,   TECHNICAL   HIGH   SCHOOL,  SPRINGFIELD,   MASS. 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS.  183 

The  art  and  teachers'  training  schools  are  taking  steps  to  strengthen 
their  art  departments.  The  leaders  in  art  teaching  are  systematizing  and 
simplifying  the  subject  matter  for  purposes  of  instruction."  There  have 
been  few  published  treatises  dealing  in  an  orderly  manner  with  form  and 
ornament  in  their  minor  aspects,  but  the  future  bids  fair  to  offer  a  science 
of  design  on  a  par  with  other  sciences,  and  the  saner  conservative  study 
of  the  present  is  gradually  precipitating  the  more  stable  phases  of  the 
subject. 

Design  in  the  elementary  school  has  to  do  with  the  form,  proportion 
and  color  of  the  products  of  construction  and  with  the  decoration  or  em- 
bellishment of  them  in  adequate  fashion.  As  a  prerequisite  the  pupils  are 
given  some  knowdedge  of  process  and  the  limitations  of  material,  and  as 
complete  and  thorough  a  training  in  design  theory  as  seems  feasible.  The 
aims  may  be  stated  as  follows:  (a)  To  teach  relations  of  form,  size  and 
tone  at  the  basis  of  harmony ;  (b)  to  teach  the  importance  of  utility  in 
design,  since  this  is  a  study  of  craft  and  not  fine  art;  (c)  to  teach  desigrt 
as  related  to  process  and  material  and  as  defining  the  kind  and  treatment 
of  motif. 

One  wall  find  in  every  outline,  as  far  back  as  the  first  published 
statement  of  drawing,  some  item  or  suggestion  concerning  design.'* 
Ornament  and  decoration  are  of  interest  to  all  as  a  fundamental  part  of 
existence,  even  more  so  than  representation,  and  in  recognition  of  this 
inherent  love  for  adornment  and  beauty,  the  drawing  teacher  has  always 
included  in  the  school  outline  simple  problems  intended  to  satisfy  it. 
These  comprised  the  invention  of  borders,  patterns,  rosettes,  geometric 
compositions  and  the  copying  of  motifs  from  historic  sources.  Such  ex- 
ercises were  not  devised  for  any  special  purpose  nor  arranged  and  taught 
after  any  approved  method,  and  they  did  not  satisfy.  Present  school 
work  is  strongly  saturated  with  the  practical,  utilitarian  ideal,  and  design 
in  conjunction  with  manual  training  and  the  crafts  forms  a  combination 
which  has  already  become  a  strong  influence  in  art  instruction.  In  a 
majority  of  present  courses  one  finds  that  at  least  some  of  the  design  is 
composed  and  used  for  a  definite  object. 

The  subject  in  the  elementary  school  may  be  divided  into:  i.  Color 
study.    2.  Theory — of  space  and  line  relations ;  of  movement  and  rhythm ; 

"See  Year  Books  of  the  Council  of  Supervisors  of  the  Manual  Arts  for  1906-1907,  arti- 
cles by  Dr.  Haney;  also  his  "Class-icom  Practice  in  Design,"  Manual  Arts  Press. 

'•■'See  "Dictational  Lessons  in  Drawing,"  by  Miss  S.  F.  Buckelew,  1878.  Also  "The 
Use  of  Models,"   Prang  Educational  Co.,    1887. 


i84  ART  EDi  CATION  IX  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

of  composition  applied  to  patterns,  pictures  and  drawings.  3.  Convention- 
alization and  adaptation  of  plant  and  animal  forms  for  stamps,  borders  and 
patterns.  4.  Lettering.  5.  Craft  work.  In  this  connection  is  taught  the 
influence  of  material  and  process  and  the  demands  of  utility. 

Previous  to  any  discussion  of  the  teaching  of  design  in  the  grammar 
grades,  it  is  advisable  to  note  certain  characteristics  of  the  decorative 
work  of  the  primary  classes.  Psychology  and  experience  have  shown 
teachers  that  very  young  children  love  to  enrich  any  available  surface, 
but  that  decoration  means  to  them  not  formal,  well  balanced  ornament, 
but  pictures  in  all  the  realism  that  youthful  imagination  can  devise.  This 
tendency  has  been  used  to  advantage  in  the  lower  grades,  and  pictorial 
motifs  devised  by  pupils  are  repeated  to  form  borders  or  employed  singly 
as  decorations  for  covers,  envelopes,  boxes  and  the  like.  More  than  this, 
in  the  way  of  design,  primary  children  cannot  well  do.  Teachers  have 
come  to  feel  that  more  formal  instruction  should  be  left  till  later  years. 

In  some  courses  dots,  blots  and  dashes  of  color  are  assembled  into 
units  for  borders  and  patterns  and  used  for  the  decoration  of  complete  con- 
structed problems.  This  work  lacks  the  meaning  of  the  pictorial  unit 
and  is  more  foreign  to  the  spirit  of  primary  teaching.  In  color,  the  names  of 
the  six  hues,  red,  orange,  yellow,  green,  blue  and  violet,  are  taught  and 
the  tones  made  with  pigment  or  crayon,  usually  the  latter.  Systematic 
study  of  color  combinations  in  the  lower  grades  is  not  attempted.  As 
a  whole,  the  primary  school  does  not  study  design  or  decoration,  but  uses 
it  whenever  the  ])roI)lem  warrants,  in  the  simplest  possible  manner,  and 
with  little  or  no  discussion  of  means  or  rules. 

COLOR. 

The  stiidy  of  color  is  included  in  every  course  of  study  available  for 
examination,  varving  from  a  cursory  consideration  of  the  six  hues  and 
their  use  in  re])resentatic)n,  to  mintitcly  i)lanned  schedules  in  which  color 
is  treated  as  a  science  and  harmonies  and  combinations  of  tone  are  ex- 
pressed in  terms,  based  (jn  scales  with  definite  intervals  of  value,  hue  and 
intensity."'     There  is  a  feeling  that  color  should  be  taught  somehow  and 

'"Sec  "A  Tlieory  of  Pure  DesiRii."  '  y  Dr.  Denman  W.  Ross.  This  offers  scales  of 
t<iiies  which  i)lace  each  possible  tone  in  a  definite  position.  Certain  principles  are  laid  down  for 
the  guidance  of  the  student  in  arranging  combinations  and  compositions  of  color  or  light  and 
dark  spots.  .\  number  of  teachers  have  attempted  to  transfer  this  scheme  to  the  class  room 
and  in  a  somewhat  modified  form,  it  is  used  S|)ar!ngly  in  th=  unper  grammar  grades.  See  also 
'■.\  Color  Xct.ition."  by  .\.  11.  Munsell.  1906.  !Mr.  Munsell  uses  five  |)rimary  colors  instead 
of   si.\.    .Tiid    adjusts   the   tones  of  his   scales   by   means    of    physical    experiment. 


ART  EDUCATION  I\  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS.  187 

somewhere.  The  attitude  of  supervisors  toward  this  teaching  can  be 
gauged  from  twelve  courses  recently  published  in  the  "School  Arts  Book," 
together  with  remarks  and  notes  by  the  authors.  The  trend  of  the 
statements  is  that  children  should  be  given  a  working  knowledge  of  color 
terms  and  characteristics ;  that  they  should  learn  to  recognize  and  repro- 
duce tones  in  flowers,  fine  textiles  and  pictures;  they  should  be  made 
familiar  with  the  two  or  three  types  of  tone  harmony  and  should  use 
them.''  The  suggestions  avoid  technicalities.  The  following  course  is  a 
typical  one: 

Grade  I.  Six  standard  colors.  Identif\  and  name  in  spectrum  order 
forward  and  backward. 

Grade  II.  Tints  and  shades  of  standard  colors,  as  light  and  dark 
colors.     Dolls'  dresses  for  colors  that  look  well  together. 

Grade  III.  Hues  of  color  through  study  of  flowers  and  samples. 
Tints  and  shades.     Flower  arrangement  for  color  harmony. 

Grade  IV.  Recognize  and  name  all  important  hues  of  color,  matching 
with  colored  pencil,  matching  colors  of  leaves  and  flowers. 

Grade  V.  Working  knowledge  of  the  five  color  box  (red.  yellow, 
green,  blue  and  burnt  sienna).  Primary,  secondary  and  complementary; 
matching  and  grouping  colors,  flowers  and  samples. 

Grade  VI.  Scales  of  values.  Decorative  drawings  of  flowers  and 
objects  in  three  values  of  one  color. 

Grade  \'II.  Intensities.  Exercises  in  changing  the  intensity  of  color 
without  changing  its  value. 

Grade  \'III.  Color  harmonies.  Knowledge  through  practice  in  com- 
bining samples  of  goods  for  house  furnishing,  etc. 

Grade  IX.  Harmonizing  of  colors  through  (i)  saturation,  (2)  use 
of  an  intermediate,  (3)  proportion. 

This  synopsis  is  a  fair  sample  of  the  best  type  of  course  in  color 
teaching.  It  is  a  possible  one  at  least,  and  work  along  similar  lines  will 
be  found  in  the  other  places  mentioned.  From  observation  of  actual 
school  work  (for  printed  courses  are  often  brief  and  misleading)  one 
gleans  two  hopeful  signs.  Whatever  formal  color  study  is  done  is  placed 
in  the  upper  grades ;  and  more  and  more  of  it  is  applied  work,  not  theory. 
It  is  the  same  influence  which  crops  out  all  through  the  school,  the  in- 

1' "School  Arts  Book,"  May,  1907 — Course  of  Bristol,  Conn. ;  Chicago,  111. :  Fitchburg  Normal 
School,  Mass.;  Natick,  Mass.;  New  York  City:  Oakland,  Cal.;  Philadelphia.  Pa.;  Springfield, 
Mass.;    Newton,    Mass.;    Ethical    Culture    School,   New   York  City:   Boston,   Mass. 


i88  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

clination  to  give  every  exercise  a  practical  turn.  The  theories  of  Ross 
and  Munsell  are  given  definite  appHcation  and  adapted  to  school  room 
practice.  Teachers  of  ability  are  adding  to  the  available  reference  mate- 
rial, such  matter  as  will  bring  color  work  within  the  mental  scope  of 
the  elementary  school  child, 

THEORY   OF  DESIGN. 

Instruction  in  exercises  to  illustrate  principles  in  design  finds  less 
favor  than  it  did  a  few  years  since.  There  are  still  many  courses  which 
are  full  of  problems  in  space  division,  the  composition  of  borders, 
patterns  and  landscape,  and  designs  in  squares,  circles  and  triangles.  The 
cult  of  the  abstract  spot  still  flourishes.  But  these  inventions,  avowedly 
for  illustrative  uses,  have  no  concrete  value ;  they  are  merely  a  kind  of 
aesthetic  framework  which  by  itself  is  an  unlovely  thing.  There  is  a  per- 
vading effort  all  over  the  country  to  teach  these  same  principles  through 
the  making  of  useful  objects  and  the  application  of  real  decoration.  The 
theory  of  design  includes  the  teaching  of  conventionalization  or  the 
adaptation  of  natural  forms  for  decorative  uses ;  but  this,  too,  it  has  been 
foiuid.  must  be  taught  in  close  juxtaposition  with  material  and  technique. 

The  choice  and  adaptation  of  motifs  are  topics  which  have  devel- 
oped slowl}'.  One  finds  a  good  many  fine  conventional  forms  in  grammar 
school  work,  where  the  motifs  used  are  consistent  with  the  article  deco- 
rated, ^lost  of  the  inspiration  comes  from  flower  or  plant  forms,  because 
of  their  naturally  decorative  character.  The  advent  of  craft  work  has  com- 
pelled ornament  to  conform  to  the  manner  of  execution.  With  this  tech- 
nical restriction,  children  have  been  led  to  use  natural  units  understand- 
ingly.  Basketry,  pottery  and  stenciling  are  so  characteristic  that  continued 
experience  with  them  produces  a  sense  of  design  which  enables  pupils  to 
work  with  skill  and  confidence. 

It  is  a  frequent  practice  to  teach  in  each  grammar  school  year  some 
form  of  hand  work  to  be  pursued  in  connection  with  design.''  Stenciling 
or  block  printing  on  paper  or  textiles,  incised  borders  and  patterns  on 
pottery  and  tiles,  incised  and  stained  ornament  on  wood,  raised  or  etched 

'~See  outlines  of  Xew  York  City  (bookbinding,  leather  tooling,  stenciling,  block  print- 
ing, stained  wood,  repousse);  lioston,  Mass.  (leather,  metal,  wood);  Oakland,  Cal.  (basketry, 
weaving,  wood);  Huffalo,  N.  V.  (wood,  stencil);  Cincinnati,  Ohio  (wood);  Bloomfield,  N.  J. 
(s?win-j);  Utica,  X.  Y.  (clay);  S.  Orange,  X.  J.  (leather);  Springfield,  Mass.  (printing,  card- 
board); Ethical  Culture  School,  X.  V.  City  (printing);  Montclair,  N.  J.  (clay,  cardboard, 
bookbinding).  In  Wellesley.  Mass.,  is  found  much  craft  work  in  weaving  and  textiles,  metal 
work    (jewelry),  basketry,  etc.      Pupils   work   from  their   own   designs. 


JEWELRY,    HIGH    SCHOOL,    WELLESLEY,    MASS. 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS.  191 

meta!  work,  leather,  modeling  and  basketry  are  crafts  found  singly 
or  in  combinations  in  most  courses.  The  kind  seems  to  be  unimportant, 
though,  in  the  main,  a  form  of  construction  is  adopted  which  will  pro- 
duce articles  pleasing  to  the  pupil  and  using  materials  not  foreign  to  his 
experience. 

Designs  are  applied  to  two  general  classes  of  objects,  (i)  paper  and 
cardboard  construction  as  valentines,  Christmas  cards,  and  boxes  and 
covers  for  school  work.  Much  of  this  is  under  the  immediate  supervision 
of  the  drawing  teacher.  (2)  To  the  several  crafts  above  mentioned. 
These  are  usually  termed  "manual  training,"  and  are  in  charge  of  a  sepa- 
rate teacher  or  supervisor.  In  a  majority  of  schools  the  bulk  of  the 
design  belongs  to  the  first  class.  It  is  a  two-dimensional  problem,  and  in- 
volves less  technical  difficulty  than  the  second. 

Interest  in  the  crafts  is  quite  recent.  It  has  grown  so  rapidly  that 
fev*-  teachers  have  had  time  to  become  proficient.  Moreover,  applied 
design  is  a  bit  fascinating  and  there  is  the  temptation  to  dabble  in  many 
kinds  of  work  and  not  master  any  one.  The  crafts  were  originally  con- 
sidered to  be  manual  training  and  the  teacher  of  this  subject  was  not 
always  a  designer.  Readjustment  is  slowly  taking  place,  i.i  which  the 
drawing  teacher  is  learning  the  technical  details  of  typical  forms  of  hand- 
work and  the  shop  instructor,  the  elements  of  design.  Constructive  de- 
sign, in  connection  with  mechanical  drawing,  has  become  a  topic  of 
unusual  interest.  Shop  teachers  need  in  their  work  a  more  accurate 
knowledge  of  fine  proportions  and  ornament,  and  pupils  require  better 
preparation  in  mechanical  drawing.  In  response,  the  drawing  teacher 
endeavors  to  give  instruction  of  the  practical  character  desired. 

METHODS  OF  TEACHING  DESIGN. 

The  stage  immediately  preceding  the  present  time  maintained  a 
conception  of  design  which  was  the  outgrowth  of  art  school  influence. 
Until  very  recently  it  was  conceded  that  all  which  was  best  in  the  world 
of  fine  form  and  embellishment  emanated  from  classic  sources.  Greek, 
Roman  and  mediaeval  patterns  and  motifs  were  presented  to  the  pupil  as 
ideals — there  were  no  others.  He  copied  these  and  used  them  as  they 
were,  or  so  slightly  changed  as  to  merely  imitate  their  beauty  without 
deriving  any  great  profit,  or  understanding  the  underlying  principles. 
Teachers  later  conceded  to  their  children  the  privilege  of  using  naturalistic 


192  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

sprays  of  fruit,  flowers  and  grasses  and  pictorial  arrangements  of  land- 
scape or  objects,  as  ornament  on  covers,  cards,  boxes,  etc.  This  natural- 
istic treatment,  borrowed  from  Japanese  sources,  was  more  free  and,  in 
harmony  with  the  tastes  of  the  pupils,  but  whereas  the  Oriental  was  quite 
a  genius  at  composition  and  arrangement,  the  modern  teacher  was  not. 
Not  only  was  there  a  minimum  of  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  design  but 
there  was  an  infrequent  use  of  good  color. 

A  little  over  a  dozen  years  ago  Arthur  W.  Dow,  in  his  book  on 
"Composition,"  presented  a  treatment  of  design  in  an  orderly  way.  The 
issue  of  this  manual  put  into  the  hands  of  teachers  some  clue  to  a  method 
of  approach  in  the  composition  of  pictures,  patterns,  and  the  printed  page. 
A  second  and  decided  impulse  was  given  the  study  of  design  through 
the  work  of  Denman  W.  Ross,  of  Harvard  College,  who  developed  a 
theory  of  design  from  the  scientific  point  of  view.  Unfortunately  many 
teachers  of  drawing  extracted  from  these  systems  the  means  of  study  and 
made  them  ends.  The  borders,  patterns  and  simpler  arrangements,  which 
were  intended  as  problems  to  illustrate  principles,  were  transferred  directly 
to  the  school  room  as  exercises  of  worth  for  their  own  beauty.  It  was 
inevitable  that  sooner  or  later  the  articulation  of  design  with  execution 
of  finished  articles  would  take  place,  because  patterns  without  purpose 
possessed  no  "raison  d'etre." 

The  last  development,  now  in  progress,  involves  more  than  the 
making  of  beautiful  patterns.  It  includes  the  consideration  of  material 
and  use.  Teachers  are  demanding  more  and  more  from  normal  and  art 
schools,  thorough  instruction  in  craft  work,  and  are  coming  to  consider 
the  article  together  with  its  ornament  as  one  problem. 

It  is  accepted  practice  to  teach  applied  design  as  follows : 

(a)  The  pupil  first  learns  to  work  in  the  given  material,  clay,  textile 
or  wood,  and  the  first  forms  and  decoration  are  dictated.  The  restrictions 
due  to  material  are  carefully  defined. 

(b)  Exercises  are  given  to  compose  a  design  for  a  similar  article 
with  slight  modifications.'"  This  is  followed  by  other  problems,  each 
involving  new  elements  in  technique  or  a  new  form  of  decoration. 

(c)  Later  problems  include  the  execution  of  individual  models. 

In  the  presentation  of  a  given  problem  to  the  class,  great  care  is 
exercised  to  furnish  a  basis  for  working.  It  is  at  this  point  that  theory  is 

'■'As  a  bookshelf,  bracket,  clay  fern  box,  flower   pot,  tile,  rug,   booklet,  valentine,  or  cover. 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS.  195 

valuable.  As  a  preparation  the  pupils  are  taught  to  divide  given  spaces, 
oblong,  square  and  circular,  into  interesting  patterns,  which  follow  certain 
structural  as  well  as  aesthetic  laws.  They  are  taught  the  synthesis  of 
areas  in  order  to  make  patterns  following  the  same  laws,  and  are  in- 
structed in  the  decorative  use  of  floral  and  animal  forms  and  the  deco- 
rative use  of  letters. 

Having  studied  the  principles,  the  pupil  is  given  a  motif.  This 
motif  may  be  the  blank  form  for  decoration,  like  a  flower  pot,  or  book 
rack  or  bracket.  !More  often  it  is  a  unit  from  which  pattern  is  to  be 
made.  For  geometric  ornament  this  unit  may  be  a  square,  cross  or  circle 
to  be  used  as  a  starting  point  for  space  composition  or  border,  or  it  may 
be  a  flower,  leaf,  or  insect.  The  pupil  receives  a  concise  statement  of  the 
form  of  design  desired,  whether  surface  pattern,  panel,  stamp  or  border. 
If  the  problem  is  a  border  the  construction,  of  course,  is  discussed  and  the 
method  of  repetition  settled.  Color,  so  largely  used  in  present  design 
teaching,  is  taught  more  from  the  practical,  technical  point  of  view  than 
as  a  theory.  It  can  only  be  studied  properly  in  connection  with  material 
and  process. 

The  salient  feature  of  present  day  teaching  of  design  is  its  definiteness 
and  directness  of  method.  The  teacher  uses  a  wealth  of  illustrative 
material  from  magazines,  books,  charts  and  completed  craftswork.  The 
school  which  does  not  possess  some  books  on  design  and  craftsmanship 
is  a  rarity. 

MECHANICAL  DRAWING. 

Mechanical  drawing  is  not  often  conceded  to  be  a  form  of  artistic 
expression.  By  means  of  it  one  defines  the  sizes  and  shapes  of  elements 
in  a  structure  and  indicates  methods  of  construction  and  sometimes  deco- 
ration. This  phase  of  drawing  is  essentially  an  instrument,  and  since  it  is 
so  valuable  a  tool  one  is  surprised  to  find  it  so  little  used  until  recent 
years.  The  subject  includes  working  drawings  of  simple  articles  to  be 
made  in  w^ood,  metal  or  clay.  These  drawings  give  the  dimensions  of 
the  proposed  structure  and  show  how  the  parts  are  put  together.  There 
is  a  second  aim.  implied  more  often  than  stated,  which  is  to  teach  the 
conception  of  the  third  dimension.  Such  crafts  as  pottery  and  woodwork 
produce  solids,  and  to  rightly  devise  and  execute  things  by  these  crafts, 
the  pupil  must  ;)e  able  to  think  in  solid  terms. 


196  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Within  a  year  or  so  syllabi  of  mechanical  drawing  have  been  issued 
by  several  supervisors,  either  separately  or  in  connection  with  the  general 
course.^  Most  courses  suggest  that  the  working  drawings  be  introduced 
in  the  sixth  or  seventh  year.  These  exercises  are  at  first  of  the  very  simplest 
kind,  two  or  three  views  of  objects  like  a  geometric  solid,  box,  bracket  or 
picture  frame.  Usually  one  or  two  exercises  in  each  year  are  sent  to  the 
shop  to  be  carried  out  in  wood."' 

The  ordinary  conventions,  as  contour,  hidden,  projection  and  dimen- 
sion lines,  are  taught  and  applied.  In  some  schools  there  is  free-hand 
sketching  of  projections  from  a  perspective  drawing  and  vice  versa. 

In  most  cities  it  seems  to  be  the  practice  to  give  pupils  just  enough 
of  this  instruction  to  enable  them  to  read  plans  and  details  for  use  in  the 
shop.  Lack  of  adequate  time  for  the  arts  makes  it  necessary  that  some 
phase  of  the  work  be  condensed.,  and  mechanical  drawing  is  the  sub- 
ject most  affected.  It  is  acknowledged  that  thorough  grounding  in  the 
fundamental  ideas  of  plain  projection  is  an  invaluable  business  asset,  and 
since  many  boys  leave  school  at  the  end  of  their  elementary  training  it  is 
desirable  that  they  possess  this  advantage. 

PICTURE   STUDY. 

One  almost  invariably  finds  in  present  outlines  complete  sug- 
gestive lists  of  pictures  for  study.  These  lists  are  classified  by  grades. 
There  are  at  least  four  business  firms  which  derive  their  revenue  in  large 
part  from  the  sale  of  inexpensive  reproductions  of  masterpieces  of  paint- 
ing, sculpture,  etc.,  to  the  public  schools.  The  purpose  of  such  teaching, 
if  one  can  sift  an  aim  from  a  number  of  diverse  opinions,  seems  to  be  to 
present  to  children  reproductions  of  the  world's  masterpieces  in  painting 
and  sculpture  and  then  coax  them  into  enjoying  these  pictures.  \^arious 
supervisors  have  put  themselves  on  record"  as  favoring  picture  study  and 
art  appreciation  in  general.  The  lists  offered  are  of  even  merit,  and  might 
well  serve  as  bases  for  a  course  in  aesthetic  culture,  but  there  is  no  settled 
plan  of  teaching  and  no  ver\-  convincing  result. 

The  courses  referred  to  usually  state  tliat  study  of  fine  pictures  will 
develop  a  discriminating  taste  in  art  matters,  will  imbue  the  child  with 

-"Peoria.   111.;    New   York   City;    Springfield,   Mass. 

-'In  Newark,  N.    T.,    all  drawings  for  woodwork  are  executed  by   pupils. 

--  "School  Arts  Piook."  February,  190S.  Here  are  found  statements  on  the  subject  of  Pic- 
ture Study  in  the  following  places:  Boston,  Mass.;  Oakland,  Cal.:  Montclair,  N.  J.;  Denver, 
Col.;    Milwaukee,    Wis.;    Hartford,    Conn.;    Springfield,    Mass.;    Maiden,    Mass.;    Philadelphia,    Pa. 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS.  199 

a  reverence  and  love  for  great  pictures,  and  will  lead  him  to  accept  and 
succumb  to  the  influence  ^of  beauty.  This  spiritual  apotheosis  is  to  be 
accomplished  by  dissecting  each  picture,  discussing  the  houses,  trees  and 
animals,  what  the  people  seem  to  be  doing,  why  they  are  doing  it,  the 
color,  time  of  day  and  season — in  general,  the  content  of  the  picture. 
There  prevails  a  strong  feeling  that  fine  pictures  are  an  influence  for 
good,  but  teachers  have  as  yet  not  settled  upon  an  adequate  method  of 
teaching  art  appreciation  to  children.  Many  supervisors  frankly  ignore 
the  subject  in  its  formal  presentation,  but  place  in  school  rooms,  as  one 
would  in  the  home,  the  best  of  art  reproductions  the  school  can  buy. 
Gradually  the  idea  is  gaining  ground  that  a  well  furnished  class  room, 
pleasant  to  use  and  look  at  because  of  the  good  things  it  contains,  is  a 
better  kind  of  instruction  than  periodic  doses  of  Raphael  and  others. 

Teachers  also  use  pictures  of  all  kinds  in  connection  with  drawing 
to  teach  form,  color,  position,  perspective  and  the  mechanics  of  repre- 
sentation in  general.  It  is  fare  that  one  does  not  find  in  a  good  school 
a  comprehensive  collection  of  photographs  and  reproductions  for  the  use 
of  the  different  classes. 

CONCLUSION-. 

Our  educational  system  is  a  national  growth  and  not  a  fixed  organi- 
zation. It  is  imder  the  direct  control  of  States  and  not  of  the  paternal 
government.  Ideals  and  standards  of  efficiency  appear  as  the  result  of 
long  struggles,  and  change  with  the  rapidity  characteristic  of  a  growing 
country.  In  the  main  these  ideals  have  been  healthy  ones,  and  in  a  coun- 
try where  art  education  has  in  the  past  received  little  or  no  direct  aid 
from  outside  sources,  it  is  to  the  credit  of  art  teachers  that  they  have  se- 
cured for  it  support  from  the  public  and  a  firm  footing  in  the  school  cur- 
riculum. The  reconstruction  going  on  in  the  teaching  of  drawing  and  de- 
sign points  to  a  more  useful  interpretation  of  the  mission  of  the  arts,  to 
a  more  consistent  endeavor  to  plan  the  course  of  study  around  ideas,  not 
processes,  as  centres,  and  to  eliminate  those  elements  which  cannot  justify 
their  existence  on  utilitarian  grounds.  This  does  not  mean  that  art  teach- 
ing will  be  put  on  a  sordid,  commercial  basis.  Far  from  it.  Conceptions 
of  beauty  have  changed,  and  so  have  the  convictions  of  teachers  as  to 
what  aspects  of  beauty  are  to  be  considered  in  the  elementary  school. 
Supervisors  are  leaving  to  the  high  school  and  the  art  school,  painting  in 


20O  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

full  color,  pose  drawing  and  the  history  and  appreciation  of  art.  Chil- 
dren of  elementary  grades  are  too  young  to  make  headway  with  these, 
but  they  can  gain  facility  in  the  use  of  the  pencil  and  acquire  such  funda- 
mentals of  design  as  will  prove  to  be  an  excellent  foundation  for  future 
study  of  the  fine  arts  and  for  the  trades.  Technical  education  claims  a 
larger  proportion  of  boys  each  year,  and  there  is  a  steady,  increasing  de- 
mand for  drawing  that  can  be  used.  It  is  evident  that  the  school  of  the 
future  must  offer  in  the  last  year  or  two  of  its  elementary  period,  an  in- 
dustrial course  for  those  who  cannot  attend  high  school.  Both  in  this 
and  in  the  high  school,  drawing  will  occupy  a  strategic  position  by  virtue 
of  its  importance  in  the  arts. 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 

By  Charles  M.  Carter. 

IN  preparing  the  following  chapter  the  author  has  endeavored  to  keep  in 
mind  those  inquiries  which  he  knows  are  apt  to  be  made  by  foreign 
teachers  concerning  art  study  in  the  United  States.  As  far  as  possible, 
interesting  information  suggestive  of  what  is  best  for  aims  and  courses 
of  study  has  been  secured  from  typical  schools  in  different  parts  of  the 
country.  Certain  sections  are  not  represented  as  fully  as  desired,  because 
responses  were  not  received  to  inquiries.  In  other  instances  the  informa- 
tion arrived  too  late  to  be  available.  However,  it  is  hoped  that  the  mat- 
ter here  presented,  supplemented  by  the  illustrations  throughout  the  vol- 
ume, will  assist  in  forming  an  idea  of  the  art  work  existing  today  in  the 
high  schools  of  the  United  States. 

It  should  be  understood  that  the  term  "high  school"  in  the  United 
States  refers  to  those  schools  which  follow  the  elementary  schools.  The 
latter  represent  the  first  eight  or  nine  years  of  the  child's  school  life.  The 
high  schools,  as  a  whole,  have  been  for  many  years  institutions  devoted 
to  literary  or  academic  training.  In  recent  years,  however,  their  char- 
acter has  undergone  considerable  modifications.  These  modifications 
have  tended  to  give  the  instruction  a  more  direct  bearing  on  the  practical 
requirements  of  the  pupils.  Thus  it  is  that  "Commercial,"  "Manual 
Training,"  "Technical,"  "Polytechnic,"  etc.,  schools  have  come  into  exist- 
ence. Instruction  in  the  directions  indicated  by  the  various  names  is  con- 
stantly extending  and  taking  the  place  of  the  purely  literary  high  schools 
of  former  times.  The  literary  schools  still  predominate,  but  in  wide-awake 
communities  the  idea  of  making  the  school  preparatory  to  practical  life 
is  constantly  in  the  ascendant. 

AIMS  OF  THE  HIGH   SCHOOL  COURSES. 

The  aims  of  the  high  school  course  in  art  training,  as  stated  by  one 
^>upervisor.  should  be :  "The  cultivation  of  a  sense  of  beauty,  the  clearing 


202  ART  EDUCATION  LV  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

and  fixing  of  visual  impressions  through  drawing,  the  elevation  of  com- 
merce and  manufactures  through  the  increasing  use  and  appreciation  of 
the  arts  of  design,  the  individual  acquisition  of  drawing  as  a  form  of  prac- 
tical language." 

Another  writer  says:  "First,  as  to  the  aim  negatively  considered. 
It  should  not  be  to  train  artists,  as  we  have  neither  the  room,  appliances^ 
lime,  nor  the  atmosphere  for  it.  Second,  we  cannot  make  mechanical 
draughtsmen  for  much  the  same  reasons.  Third,  we  cannot  make  indus- 
trial designers,  such  as  are  demanded  by  the  trades  and  crafts.  Every 
kind  of  ornament,  such  as  textile  design,  color  printing,  bookbinding,, 
.ivchitectural  design,  ceramics,  etc.,  etc.,  has  its  own  technical  problems. 
In  fact,  every  branch  of  design  is  really  a  separate  study,  which  must  be 
carried  on  together  with  the  practical  considerations  involved.  We, 
therefore,  conclude  negatively  that  special  training  in  any  branch  of  art 
is  not  to  be  expected  in  our  ordinary  high  schools.'" 

The  aim  positively  considered  may  be:  "(i)  The  cultivation  of  the 
sense  of  beauty,  which  is  of  the  highest  value  to  all  human  beings ;  (2) 
the  getting  and  the  fixing  in  mind  of  clear  and  distinct  visual  images  of 
the  appearance  of  at  least  the  common  objects;  (3)  sufficient  practical 
skill  in  the  use  of  pencil,  brush  and  crayon  or  charcoal,  so  as  to  use  draw- 
ing as  a  language."" 

The  Xewton,  A'lass.,  high  school  is  working  with  the  following  in 
view:  "We  are  undertaking  to  secure  results  consistent  wnth  the  ends 
of  education  as  stated  by  President  Hyde,  of  Bowdoin  College:  'To  earn 
a  living,  to  support  the  institutions  of  society,  and  to  enjoy  life.'  Com- 
parativel}'  little  is  at  present  being  done  on  the  industrial  side  of  art,  but 
with  the  erection  of  our  Technical  High  School,  which  we  expect  in  the 
immediate  future,  we  plan  to  emphasize  this  line  of  work." 

The  aim  of  the  Rochester,  X.  Y.,  high  schools  is  expressed  in  part 
by  these  words :  "The  subject  is  included  in  the  curriculum  because  of 
its  aesthetic,  educational  and  industrial  value.  It  is  hoped  that  this  de- 
partment will  develop  in  each  pupil  a  love  for  the  beautiful  in  art,  in  the 
decoration  of  the  home  and  of  the  city,  and  in  nature."" 

Newark,  X.  J.,  puts  the  aim  briefly,  but  comprehensively,  thus:  "The 
aim  of  our  art  work  is  to  teach  the  appreciation  of  harmony  in  color  and 

'H.   II.    Brown,    Stuyvesant   High   School,   New   York,   N.   Y. 
^I.angdon    S.    TTiompson,    Supervisor   of    Drawing,    Jersey    City,    N.   J. 
'•F.    II.    Carjienter,    High    school,    Rochester,    N.    Y. 


TOOLED   LEATHER,  FIKST    YEAR,    HIGH    SCH(X)L,    WEST    NEWTOX.    MASS 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS.  205 

line.'"  Washington,  D.  C,  states  that:  "The  purpose  of  the  work  is  to 
train  the  eye  of  the  pupil  to  accurate  observation  and  the  hand  to  facihty 
in  representation,  to  stimulate  the  creative  faculties,  and  to  cultivate  an 
appreciation  for  the  beautiful  in  nature  and  in  art."* 

The  Washington  Irving  High  School  of  New  York  City  represents 
one  of  the  newer  types  of  high  school  that  attempts  to  make  its  work  of 
great  practical  value  to  its  pupils.  "The  school  is  an  institution  that  at- 
tempts to  provide  for  the  young  women  residing  in  the  lower  part  of 
Manhattan  Island,  every-  kind  of  educational  and  vocational  training  that 
experience  and  investigation  suggest  as  a  proper  public  service.  Every 
one  of  the  two  thousand  girls  in  the  school  must  receive  training  in  draw- 
ing as  an  essential  feature  in  the  education  of  a  cultivated  woman.  In 
the  general  drawing  syllabus,  the  principal  sets  forth  to  the  nine  art  teach- 
ers of  the  faculty  that  he  expects  every  girl  to  gain  from  the  drawing  ex- 
ercises:  I,  accuracy  of  observation;  2,  visual  memory;  3,  appreciation  of 
beauty  and  love  of  it;  4,  artistic  judgment,  taste;  5,  manual  skill;  6,  skill 
in  expression ;  7,  originality ;  8,  love  of  neatness,  order  and  cleanliness ; 
9,  habits  of  quick  and  effective  work;  10,  a  reasonable  amount  of  informa- 
tion about  art  histor\'.  This  school  aims  at  an  inspiration  of  aesthetic  cul- 
ture, an  atmosphere  of  refinement  through  beauty."* 

Brookline,  Mass.,  presents  the  essentials  of  its  course  of  study  as 
coming  "under  three  main  heads — drawing,  handicraft  and  lecture  work. 
The  courses  are  mainly  elective,  and  are  so  arranged  as  to  meet  the  needs 
of  the  students  who  have  much  or  little  time.  They  include  problems  in 
the  theory  and  practice  of  design,  in  representation  and  composition,  and 
thev  aim,  by  means  of  illustrated  lectures  and  visits  to  art  museums,  to 
train  the  student  in  methods  of  art  study."' 

Of  the  Horace  Mann  High  School  connected  with  the  Teachers 
College  of  New  York,  the  "College  Record"  makes  the  following  state- 
ment :  "A  high  school  is  composed  of  unsorted  material.  From  our  high 
schools,  followed,  of  course,  by  a  college  course,  the  technical  schools 
draw  their  constituents.  Perhaps  many  of  our  students  never  go  either 
to  college  or  the  technical  schools — never  get  more  than  a  high  school 
education.     Our  course,  then,  is  for  general  not  for  special  training,  and 

^Elizabeth    E.    Garrabrant,    High    School,    Newark,    N.    J. 
='Annie  M.  Wilson,   Director  of  Drawing. 
^Martha   A.   Hurlbut,   Instructor. 
'Irene  Weir,    Director   of  Art. 


j206  ART  UnrCAriON  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

our  graduates  are  to  become  the  'general  public,'  not  a  set  of  specialists. 
From  among  them  a  small  percentage  will  become  artists,  and  these,  just 
as  well  as  our  future  doctors  and  lawyers,  must  get  their  training  in  pro- 
fessional schools. 

"What  relation,  then,  has  the  general  problem  to  art?  I  think  we 
ma}"  sum  up  the  relation  in  one  word — appreciation.  For  example,  we 
may  not  all  become  writers,  but  we  all  read  books;  and  it  is  a  matter  of 
vast  importance  what  books  we  read.  Just  so  we  may  not  all  become 
artists,  but  we  all  live  surrounded  by  forms  of  art  and  of  nature ;  and  it 
is  a  matter  of  vast  importance  that  we  become  alive  to  the  subtle  beauties 
of  the  one,  and  are  able  to  discriminate  between  fine  and  commonplace 
examples  of  the  other.  Such  a  general  cultivation  of  the  powers  of  appre- 
ciation will  offer  no  handicap  to  those  who  intend  to  follow  art  as  a  pro- 
fession. ()n  the  contrary,  it  lays  the  very  broadest  foundation  for  such 
future  work."* 

The  AIcDonough  High  School  of  New  Orleans,  La.,  is  presented  as 
an  example  of  high  schools  in  the  South.  The  work  of  the  boys  is  dis- 
tinct from  that  of  the  g-irls,  there  being  a  separate  course  of  instruction 
for  each.  The  aim  of  the  boys'  course  is :  "To  train  the  pupils  in  the 
■essential  principles  of  satisfactory  mechanical  drawing,  thereby  laying  a 
right  foundation  for  future  work  along  any  line  of  practical  draughting." 
The  aim  of  the  girls'  course  is  not  given  specially ;  its  character  may  be 
judged,  however,  when  it  is  stated  that  it  is  arranged  under  the  headings 
"Rc]jresentation."  "Decoration."  "Mechanical  Drawing"  and  "Color 
Study." 

From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  seen  that  the  general  aims  of  our  high 
•schools  are  much  the  same.  Increasing  importance  seems  to  be  given  to 
the  dissemination  of  art  ideas.  We  are  recognizing  more  and  more  that 
familiarity  with  these  ideas  is  fully  as  important  as  technical  skill  in 
drawing  or  painting.  It  is  also  to  be  noted  that  the  tendency  is  increasing 
to  connect  designing  with  work  in  material.  While  the  comparative 
newness  of  tliis  idea,  as  related  to  high  school  work,  causes  it  to  receive 
special  attention,  at  the  same  time  the  interest  seems  likely  to  become 
})crmanent.  This  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  the  newer  high  schools 
have  been  ])lanned.  both  as  to  course  of  stud}'  and   equipment,  to  give 

"I. ilia    A.    XiiLirse,    Instruct. ir. 


JEWELRY,    HIGH     SCHOOL.    WEST    NEWTON.    M.\.- 
FOBS,   FIRST   YE.\R;    BUCKLES,    FOURTH    YE.\R. 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


209 


recognition  to  the  arts  and  crafts.     The  sample  courses  of  study  incor- 
porated in  this  chapter  emphasize  this  idea. 

THE  SUBJECTS  GENERALLY  STUDIED. 

The  following  may  be  found  in  various  courses  of  study.  Sometimes 
the  number  of  subjects  is  limited,  or  it  may  include  nearly  all  of  the 
list : 

Orthographic  projection.     "  Life  drawing. 

Geometric  problems.  Abstract  forms. 

Machine  drawing.  Historic  ornament. 

Architectural  drawing.  Color. 

Isometric  drawing.  Light  and  shade. 

Tracing;  blue  printing.  Water  color  painting. 

Lettering.  Clay  modeling. 

Free-hand    drawing  —  objects,  Constructive  work  ("arts-crafts") 

casts.  Elementary  design. 

Plant  study.  Applied  design. 

Landscape.  Art  history. 

Free-hand  perspective.  Art  principles. 
Animal  drawing. 

Ordinarily  art  study  in  the  high  school  extends  over  four  years. 
Sometimes  it  is  optional,  at  other  times  obligatory,  or  it  may  be  obligatory 
for  one  or  two  years  and  afterwards  optional.  Lessons  generally  occupy 
a  "period"  of  forty-five  minutes.  Probablv  the  greater  number  of  schools 
devote  two  periods  per  week  to  art  study.  Occasionally  schools  have 
daily  lessons.  Certain  schools  require  work  at  home,  but  generally  time 
is  given  to  the  subjects  only  in  the  class  room.  Most  of  the  teachers 
have  had  special  training.  Occasionally  they  have  studied  at  home  and 
abroad  with  the  aim  of  becoming  artists,  and  have  afterwards  taken  up 
teaching.  As  a  general  thing  they  are  allowed  considerable  liberty  as 
to  what  they  teach,  and  as  to  how  they  present  it.  As  a  consequence 
courses  of  study  present  considerable  variety.  There  follows  the  course  of 
one  of  our  largest  Western  cities,  where  the  work  has  been  thoroughly 
introduced  and  systematized. 


2IO  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

HIGH  SCHOOL  COURSE  OF  STUDY   IN   DRAVVIXG,   ST.    LOUIS,   MO." 

FIRST   HALF  OF   FIRST   YEAR.  Weeks. 

1.  Design — (a)  Leading  principles    2 

(b)  Applied,  book  cover  or  lamp  screen 2 

2.  Plant  Study — Color  and  pencil 3 

3.  Out  of  Door  Study — Pencil i 

4.  Life — Human   Figure — Pencil 2 

5.  Object   Study — Pencil    3 

(One  study  to  be  groups  of  books.) 

Color -. 2 

6.  Domestic  Art i 

SECOND    HALF   OF    THE   FIRST    YE.\R.  Weeks. 

1.  Clay  iModeling  3 

(Bowl  forms  and  Trays — no  feet,  no  handles,  no  decorations.) 

2.  Applied   Design — Portfolio  or   lamp   screen ■. 3 

3.  Plant  Study — Full  values — Color  or  pencil  and  color 2 

4.  Out  of  Door  Study — Pencil I 

5.  Life — Human  Figure — Pencil    2 

6.  Object  Study — Full  values — Pencil 2 

(One  study  to  be  of  groups,  each  group  to  contain  a  rectangular  object.) 

Color    2 

7.  Domestic  Art I 

FIRST    HALF   OF    THE    SECOND    YEAR.  Weeks. 

1.  Clay  Modeling  (Vase  form — no  handles  or  feet.     Simple  decoration.)    3 

(b)   Stencil  executed.  ^ 

2.  Plant    Study — Full   values — Color    and   pencil 3 

3.  Out  of  Door  Study — Pencil  and  charcoal i 

4.  Human  Life — Pencil    2 

5.  Object    Study — Full    values — Pencil 2' 

(One  study  to  be  groups,  each  to  contain  a  book  and  a  beautiful  piece  of  pottery.)- 

Color    2, 

6.  Domestic  Art J. 

SECOND    HALF  OF  THE   SECOND   YEAR.  Weeks. 

1.  Clay   Modeling 3 

(Vase  Form — no  handles  or  feet.     Simple  decoration.) 

2.  Passepartout    Binding    I 

3.  Plant   Study — Full  values — Pencil  or  color 2 

4.  Out  of  Door   Study — Pencil   or  charcoal i 

5.  Life — tinman    Figure — Pencil    2 

6.  Object  Study — I'ull  values — Charcoal  and  color,  or  water  color 3 

7.  Domestic   .\rt I 

S.  Bookcover    Design    3 

■■'.Mrs.   ^L    K.    Riley,   Director  of   L'rawing. 


TOOLED  LEATHER,  HIGH  SCHOOL,  ST.  LOCIS,  MO. 


y^'if 


v^. 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS.  213 

FIRST   HALF  OF  THE  THIRD  YEAR. 

Weeks. 

Art  History — One  single  period  a  week 16 

(All  other  subjects  counted  in  weeks  of  four  periods  each.) 

1.  Applied  Design — 

( a )  Leather  tooling   4 

2.  Plant  Study — Full  values,  any  medium 4 

3.  Out  of  Door  Study — Pencil  or  other  medium 2 

4.  Life — Human   Figure — Pencil    2 

5.  Objects — Full  values — Charcoal  and  water  color,  or  water  color 4 

SECOND   HALF  OF  THE   THIRD  YF.AR. 

Weeks. 

Art  History — One  single  period  a  week 16 

(All  other  subjects  counted  in  weeks  of  four  periods  each..) 

1.  Clay   Modeling   3 

(Handles  or  feet  to  be  introduced  as  forming  part  of  the  decoration.) 

2.  Plant  Study — Full  values,  any  medium 3 

3.  Out  of  Door  Study — Any  medium 2 

4.  Life — Human   Figure — Any  medium 2 

5.  Object   Study — Full   values 4 

(Charcoal,  charcoal  and  water  color,  or  water  color.) 

6.  Design    2 

FIRST    HALF   OF   THE   FOURTH    YEAR. 

Weeks. 

Art  History — One  single  period  a  week ♦ 16 

(All  other  subjects  counted  m  weeks  of  four  periods  each.) 

1.  Applied  Design — (a)    Leather  tooling 3 

(Blotter  pad,  card  case,  purse,  small  book  cover,  belt,  etc.) 

2.  Metal    Work    (hammered) 4 

(Matchbox,  small  tray,  bowl,  etc.) 

3.  Plant  Study — Full  values,  any  medium 3 

4.  Out  of  Door  Study — Any  medium i 

5.  Life— Human   Figure— Any  medium 2 

6.  Object  Study— Full  values,  any  medium 3 

SECOND   HALF  OF  THE  FOURTH   YEAR. 
1  Weeks. 

Art  History— One  single  period  a  week 16 

(All  other  subjects  counted  in  weeks  of  four  periods  each.) 

1 .  Clay    Modeling    3 

2.  Plant  Study— Full  values,  any  medium 3 

3.  Life— Human   Figure— Any  medium 2 

4.  Poster— Making  use  of  the  life  studies  of  the  present  term 4 

5.  Stencil,  Metal  or  other  Applied  Design 4 


214  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Art  History — Third  and  Fourth  Years. 

THIRD   YEAR. 

I.     Ancient  and  Middle  Ages. 

Weeks. 

1.  Assyrian  and  Egyptian  architecture,  sculpture  and  painting 4 

2.  Greek  architecture,  sculpture  and  painting 12 

3.  Roman  architecture,  sculpture  and  painting 6 

II.  Pagan  and  Early  Christian  Art. 

4.  Saracenic  architecture  and  decoration i 

5.  Byzantine  and  Romanesque  architecture,  sculpture  and  painting 3 

6.  Gothic  architecture,  sculpture  and  painting 6 

FOURTH    YEAR. 

III.  Renaissance  and  Modern  Art. 

Weeks. 

1.  Art  of  the   13th  and   14th  centuries — Sculpture,  precursors  of  Renaissance; 

beginnings  of  painting  2 

2.  Art  of  the  15th  century 4 

3.  Art  of  the  i6th  and  17th  centuries 8 

4.  Renaissance   in   Germany 2 

5.  Renaissance   in    Spain 3 

6.  Art  in  the  Netherlands,  including  engraving 3 

7.  Modern  Art — French,  German,  Swedish,  Dutch,  American 10 

BROOKLTNE,    MASSACHUSETTS- -ART    COURSES    OF    THE    HIGH    SCHOOL." 

^Massachusetts  was  one  of  the  first  States  to  give  prominence  to  art 
education  in  the  public  schools.  Brookhne  represents  a  city  where  the 
work  has  been  in  progress  for  an  extended  time.  In  addition  to  the  fol- 
lowing course  there  is  a  distinct  course  in  "Mechanical  Drawing." 

First  Year. 

Required  of  all  General  and  Classical  Students,  and  of  Girls  in  the  Tech- 
nical Course. 
I. — Design. 

Principles  of  design ;  orderly  arrangements  of  straight  lines  for  bal- 
ance and  rhythm ;  application  to  borders,  corners  and  surface  repeats. 
Lines  straight  and  curved,  combined  by  contact  and  interlacing;  surface 
repeats.     (Orderly  arrangements  of  spots  for  rhythm  and  balance. 

Spotting  of  surface  in  rhythmic  balanced  and  imbalanced  repeats. 
Invention  of  animak  insect  and  flower  forms. 

^'Trene    Weir,    Director   of    Art. 


JEWELRY,  FOURTH    YEAR,    HIGH    SCHOOL,   WEST    NEWTOX,    MASS. 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS.  217 

II. — Handicraft. 

Art  needlework;  tooling  of  leather;  color  decoration  on  wood;  de- 
signing and  making  objects  in  metal:  hinges,  locks,  trays,  boxes,  bowls, 
clock  faces  and  sun-dials. 

Note. — In  this  connection  occasional  lectures  on  the  handicrafts  of 
the  Middle  Ages  are  given. 

III. — Drawing. 

Principles  of  perspective;  theory  and  practice.  Drawing  from 
imagination  and  from  object ;  illustration  of  above  principles. 

Practical  application  to  the  representation  of  furniture,  interiors, 
houses,  streets,  blocks,  bridges. 

This  work  is  now  done  in  the  Manual  Training  Building  from  de- 
signs prepared  under  the  direction  of  the  art  department. 

Note. — Manual  training  and  art  needlework  courses  are  published 
under  separate  cover. 

IV'. — Lecture  Course. 

Egypt :  Tomb  period,  temple  period. 

Assyria :  Cylinders,  seals,  tablets,  sculptured  reliefs. 

Greece :  Homeric  period,  archaic  period,  Olympic  games  and  influ- 
ence on  Greek  sculpture. 

Architecture :  Akropolis,  Parthenon,  Erechtheion,  Nike  Apteros. 

Vase  painting  to  show  the  life  of  the  people. 

Note. — This  course  is  intended  to  correlate  with  Greek  history,  but 
special  emphasis  is  given  to  beauty  as  a  fundamental  principle  of  Greek 
Hfe. 

Second  Year. 

Required  of  all  General  Students,  and  of  Girls  in  the  Technical  Course. 
I. — Design  and  Drawing  from  Nature. 

Drawings  from  nature  rendered  suitable  for  design. 

Problems  in  balance  and  rhythm,  using  above  forms. 

Drawing  from  object  and  cast  in  three  and  five  notes. 

Composition  in  three  or  five  neutral  values;  in  three  or  five  color 
values. 

Color  interpretation  from  objects  and  nature. 


2l8  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

U.— Color. 

Neutral  scale  of  nine  notes. 

Study  of  spectrum. 

Test  for  color  blindness. 

Color  scale  of  twelve  notes  related  lu  the  neutral  scale. 

Neutralization  of  colors  using  complementaries. 

Color  rhythm,  color  balance,  color  harmony. 

Color  analysis,  color  synthesis. 

Study  of  color  from  insect  and  animal  forms,  from  leaves,  flowers,  etc. 

Color  applied  to  interior  decoration  and  costume. 

Study    of    Bayeux   and    Gobelin   tapestries   in   connection   with   art 
needlework. 

Study  of  textiles  in  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston. 

Study  of  Japanese  prints  in  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston. 

XoTE. — These  color  problems    are    intended    to    correlate  with  the 
study  of  color  in  the  departments  of  science,  art  needlework  and  domes- 
tic arts. 
III. — Handicraft. 

Making  of  objects  in  copper  and  brass  continued ;  enameling  on  metal. 

Clay  tiles  decorated  in  neutral  color  balances. 
IV. — Lecture  Course. 

Traveling  tour  through  Italy,  Germany,  England,  France. 

Italy  :  Rome,  Florence,  Venice,  and  their  galleries. 

Germany :  Nuremberg,  guilds  and  craftworkers. 

England  :    London  and  the  cathedral  towns ;  National  Gallery. 

France :     Paris  and  the  cathedral  towns ;  the  Louvre. 

Note. — To  correlate  with  English  and  Roman  histor}-  and  literature. 

Third  IVar. 
■Mainly  elective. 
I. — Draiiing. 

Cast  drawing,  using  three,  five  or  seven  notes.  ■     ■ 
Composition  in  neutral  values,  three,  five  or  seven  notes. 
Composition  in  color  values,  three  or  five  notes — reference  to  Japa- 
nese prints. 

Landscape  and  figure  composition. 

Dccrirati\-e  illustration  :    Posters,  book  cover  desierns. 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS.  221 

Decorative  printing  and  illumination. 

Drawing  from  reproductions  of  the  old  masters :    Albertina  collection. 

Drawing   from   object   and   cast   with   special   reference   to   college 
requirements. 
II. — Handicraft. 

Original -designs  applied  to  art  needlework,  leather  and  metal. 

Making  of  passepartout  frames,  book  binding,  magazine  folios. 

Modeling  in  clay :  objects,  reliefs  and  heads. 
III. — Lecture   Course: — Foreign  and   Domestic   Architecture.     To  cor- 
relate with   English  and  American  history,  civil  government, 
domestic  science,  and  physics. 

Note. — Required  of  girls  in  the  Technical  Course. 

(a)  Domestic:  Primitive  shelters,  tent,  log  cabin,  etc.;  castle, 
manor,  town  house ;  villa,  farm  and  country  house. 

(b)  Ecclesiastic:  Basilican  and  Romanesque  types;  Wren 
churches,  the  Protestant  meeting-house,  the  modern  Amer- 
ican church. 

(c)  Civic:  school,  town  hall,  library,  art  museum,  railway  station, 
bridges  and  parkways. 

(d)  Detailed  study  of  modern  country  and  city  house  plans,  ex- 
teriors and  interiors,  furniture  and  decoration. 

Note. — This  course  is  intended  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  architec- 
ture, as  a  prime  expression  of  civilization,  has  a  development  that  parallels 
man's  growth  in  thought  and  achievement.  Special  attention  is  given  to 
tracing  the  ancestry  of  building  through  local  types ;  principles  of  good 
architecture  are  dwelt  upon — fitness,  consistency,  sincerity.  Illustrative 
drawings  are  made  and  note  books  are  kept. 
IV. — Lecture  Course  : — Greek  Architecture  and  Sculpture. 

Homeric  period :     Troy,  Tiryns,  Mykenae. 

Temples  :    ^gina,  Olympia  ;  Archaic  sculpture. 

Olympic  games  :    Influence  on  Greek  art. 

Akroix)lis  at  Athens :    Parthenon,  Erechtheion,  Nike  Apteros. 

Parthenon  :     Metopes,  frieze,  pediments. 

Sculpture :     Development  from  archaic  period. 

Greek  vase  painting :     Prehistoric,  archaic,  black-figured  and  red- 
figured  ware. 

Suggested  drawings :    Doric  and  Ionic  orders,  plan  of  Greek  temple, 


222  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

front  elevation  showing  pediment  decoration,  archaic  figure,  an  athlete,  a 
victory,  Greek  vase  decorations. 

Fourth  Year. 
Elective. 
I. — Drozving. 

Drawing  from  cast,  object  and  life. 

Drawing  from  reproductions  of  the  old  masters. 

Landscape  and  figure  composition. 

Analysis  of  principles   of  Hne   and  color  composition   in   Japanese 
prints. 
Pen  and  Ink  Drazving. 

Methods  in  the  use  of  line  by  modern  draughtsmen. 

Rendering  of  architectural  details;  Roman,  Byzantine,  Renaissance, 
Gothic,  from  photograph  and  cast. 
II. — Handicraft. 

Original  designs  applied  to  various  materials. 

Stained  glass ;  designed,  cut,  soldered. 

Monotypes ;  etching  on  glass,  brass  and  copper ;  enameling. 

Handicraft  of  previous  years  continued. 

Modeling  in  clay :  tiles,  casts  of  ornament,  heads,  animals. 
III. — Lecture   Course  : — ^Domestic   and    Foreign   Architecture.      To   cor- 
relate with  civil  government. 

Ecclesiastic :    Cathedral  building ;  Romanesque,  English  and  French 
Gothic. 

^Municipal :     Town  halls,  museums,  bridges,  parkways. 

Private :     Dwellings,  palaces. 

XoTE. — This  course  is  a  continuation  of  Lecture  Course  III  in  third 
year.      Emphasis    is    here    placed    upon    foreign    architecture    and    its 
development. 
1\\ — Lecture  Course: — A  history  of  painting. 

Italian :  Giotto,  Botticelli,  Raphael,  Michaelangelo,  Leonardo  da  Vinci. 

French :    David,  Delacroix,  the  Barbizon  group,  Millet,  Corot. 

Dutch  :     A'an  Eyck,  Memling,  Rubens,  Rembrandt. 

Spanish :    \>lasquez,  Murillo. 

English  :     Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  Gainsborough,  pre-RaphaeUte  school. 
Turner  and  Ruskin. 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS.  22$ 

Technical  processes  noted:  Panel  painting,  fresco,  oil  painting,  en- 
graving, etching. 

Note. — In  connection  with  the  above  course  practical  talks  are  given 
on  the  picture  from  the  artist's  standpoint;  the  elements  of  beauty  in 
pictorial  composition;  the  arrangement  of  pictures  in  museums;  modem 
exhibitions ;  tendencies  of  American  art ;  mural  painting. 

BOSTON,   MASSACHUSETTS,  HIGH   SCHOOL  COURSE  OF  STUDY  IN   ART." 

Boston  has  always  been  regarded  as  a  leader  in  art  education  in  the 
United   States.     The   following  quotations   indicate  the   features   of  the 
course  of  instruction  of  today. 
I. — Free-hand  Drazcing. 

Pencil  outline;  light  and  shade  in  pencil  and  charcoal;  and  water 
color  from  groups  of  still  life,  nature  and  costumed  figure.  We  aim  to 
include  in  nature  drawing  not  only  the  artistic  rendering  of  the  form$  in 
good  drawing,  color  and  composition,  but  also  some  accurate  scientific 
drawings,  such  as  are  suitable  for  illustration  of  botany  note  books,  etc. 
In  groups  of  still  life  the  pupils  arrange  objects  and  background  so  as  to 
form  good  grouping  and  a  pleasing  color  harmony. 
II. — Design. 

The  conventionalization  of  natural  forms,  both  plant  and  animal,  and 
the  use  of  these  in  designs  for  various  purposes;  the  study  of  color 
harmony,  constructive  and  decorative  designs  of  objects  to  be  actually 
worked  out  in  the  manual  arts  course. 

There  is  no  detailed  course  issued  for  high  schools  in  this  city,  but 
schools  are  expected  to  produce  satisfactory-  work  in  the  above  mentioned 
subjects,  each  in  its  own  way.  Each  high  school  is  encouraged  to  be 
individual.  Meetings  are  held,  however,  which  call  together  all  the  high 
school  drawing  teachers  of  the  city  to  meet  in  one  after  another  of  the 
schools,  so  they  may  learn  what  each  is  doing  and  discuss  various  phases 
of  the  work.  A  special  effort  is  being  made  to  connect  the  work  in  high 
schools  with  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts. 

MANUAL  ARTS  COURSE,  BOSTON. 

We  know  that  any  course  must  meet  varying  conditions.  Three 
distinct  classes  of  pupils  enter  the  schools.  First,  boys  graduated  from 
Boston  elementary  schools,  who  have  had  five  years  of  manual  training; 

"^Walter    Sargent,    Director    of    Drawing   and    Manual  ■  Training,   Boston. 


226  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

second,  boys  from  other  schools  who  have  had  little  or  no  manual  work ; 
third,  girls,  whose  manual  training  has  been  mostly  cooking  and  sewing. 

The  school  courses  will  not  permit  of  separate  classes  for  each  of 
these  groups.  The  course  must,  therefore,  be  stated  broadly,  and  we 
recommend  that  each  individual  be  allowed  to  select  from  the  following 
list  of  subjects  the  work  by  means  of  which  he  can  secure  the  best 
results. 
Mechanical  Drawing. 

Elementary :    Geometric  problems,  orthographic  projections. 

Advanced:  Machine  drawing,  architectural  drawing. 
Woochvorking. 

Elementary :  for  boys ;  for  girls,  use  of  ordinary  bench  tools. 

Advanced :  Joinery,  cabinet  design. 
Metal   Working. 

Elementary  :  Beating,  piercing,  chasing. 

Advanced :  Enameling. 
£lay  Modeling. 

Elementary :  File  work,  simple  shapes. 

Advanced :  \\'ork  in  the  round ;  plastic  design. 
l\Hsccllancons. 

Work  in  basketry,  weaving,  leather  work.  Limited  to  one-half  year, 
each. 

\\'e  recommend  that  pupils  who  take  manual  training  take  at  the 
same  time  free-hand  drawing  or  design. 

Pupils  should  not  be  allowed  to  take  metal  work  until  they  have 
"had  at  least  a  year's  experience  in  woodwork  either  in  the  elementary 
or  high  school. 

\\'c  recomniend  that  the  election  of  subjects  be  from  groups,  e.  g., 
■as  follows : 

Elementary  woodworking  and  mechanical  drawing.  • 

Advanced  woodworking  and  mechanical  drawing  or  design. 

Metal  work  and  design  or  free-hand  drawing. 

Clay  modeling  or  free-hand  drawing  or  design. 

Basket  weaving  or  leather  work  and  design. 

V\Q  recommend  that  pupils  be  given  opportunity  to  continue  work 
in  the  manual  training  arts  throughout  the  high  school  course. 


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ART  EDUCATION  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


229 


SPRINGFIELD,    MASSACHUSETTS,   THE  TECHNICAL   HIGH   SCHOOL  COURSE." 

This  represents  one  of  the  most  complete  high  schools,  as  to  equip- 
ment and  course  of  study,  that  gives  special  prominence  to  manual  train- 
ing.   The  following  indicates  some  of  the  connections  with  art  study : 


Year. 
I.., 


II. 


III. 


IV.., 


Outline  of  Work  in  Art  for  Girls. 


DESIGN. 


Design  for 
Hasketry, 
Leather  work, 
Weaving, 
Stenciling, 
Incidental  Lettering. 


Designs   for 
Pottery, 
Metal  Work, 
Wood  Furniture, 
Constructive   Details 


Architectural  Drawing 
Relation  of  house 
to  surroundings. 
Planning  of  House 
Details  of  Construe 
tion. 

Interior  Decoration, 
Relation  to  purpose 
Proportion.  Color 
schemes.  Hanging 
of  Pictures.  Mate 
rials  for  Decora 
tion. 

Special  problems  for 
hand   work  elected. 

Design  applied  li) 
dress. 


HOUSEHOLD  ART. 


Application   of  Design. 
Making  of  Weaving  of 

Baskets, 
Card   Cases, 
Purses, 

Blotter  Corners, 
Lamp  Mats. 
Scissors  Cases. 


Pottery: 
Bowls, 
Vases, 

Fern  Dishes, 
Candlesticks, 
&c. 


Holders   (hand 
loom), 
Rugs    (foot 
loom). 
Stenciling, 
Curtains, 
Sofa  Cushions, 
Table  Covers,  etc. 
Metal  Work:     Woodwork: 


Sewing  —  Hand 
Machine. 
Aprons, 
Blouses, 
Sofa  Cushions, 
Table  Covers, 
Curtains. 


Trays, 
Letter 

Racks, 
Bowls, 
Stamp 

Boxes, 
Book  Racks. 


Foot  Stools, 
Shirt  Waist 

Box, 
Taborets, 
&c. 


Pottery 
Metal   Work, 
Weaving, 
Woodwork, 


Optionals, 
choice  of  one. 


Drafting    and    Gar- 
ment  Alaking, 
Millinery, 
Straw    Hat. 


Drafting    and 
ment  Making 
(Cont'd). 
Millinery, 
Winter   Hat. 


Gar- 


Dressmaking, 
Ethics  of  Dress. 


THE  COURSE  IN   DRAWING   FOR   BOYS. 

Time: — First,    second,   and   third   years,    four   45-minute    periods   a 
week ;  fourth  year,  six  45-minute  periods  a  week. 

First  Year 
First  Term  (sixteen  weeks)  : — The  making  of  simple  working  draw- 
ings from  free-hand  sketches,  bringing  in  the  use  of  instruments,  letter- 
ing, dimensions,  dimension  lines,  pencil  and  ink  work;  one  problem  in 
design  for  simple  article  of  furniture  of  which  working  drawings  are 
made  for  use  in  the  woodshop. 

'-Charles  F.   Warner,   Principal. 

"Frank  E.   Mathewson  and   Fred  M.   Watts,  Instructors. 


230  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Second  Term  (eight  weeks)  : — Free-hand  perspective  sketches  are 
made  from  working  drawings ;  principles  of  perspective  emphasized,  and 
analysis  of  the  working  drawing  into  type  solids  carefully  considered 
and  applied. 

Third  Term  (eight  weeks)  : — Free-hand  working  drawings,  using 
cross-section  paper  ruled  in  eighth-inch  squares ;  exercises  using  models 
made  by  pattern  making  classes ;  perspective  sketches  made  from  models 
and  from  working  drawing  sketches. 

Fourth  Term  (eight  weeks)  : — Mechanical  drawing  from  free-hand 
sketches  and  models  measured  by  student ;  first  principles  and  problems 
in  orthographic  projection;  lettering  title  page  for  book  of  drawings  made 
during  the  year. 

Second  Year 

First  Term  (first  eight  weeks)  : — Developments  and  intersections 
from  problems  in  note  book  and  sketches  on  blackboard ;  conic 
sections,  etc. 

P'irst  Term  (second  eight  weeks)  : — Problem  in  design  in  wrought 
iron,  to  be  worked  out  in  the  forge  shop  during  this  year.  Problems 
given  include  designs  for  andirons,  door-knockers,  hinges,  and  wall 
brackets  for  drop  lights  or  lanterns. 

Second  Term  (eight  weeks)  : — Principles  of,  and  calculations  for 
screws  and  bolts,  and  their  application  in  working  drawings. 

Third  Term  (eight  weeks): — Machine  drawings;  details  and  free- 
hand sketches ;  perspective  sketching  of  assembled  machines  from  the 
working  drawings  of  the  machine. 

Fourth  Term  (eight  weeks)  : — Continuation  of  work  given  in  the 
third  term. 

Third  Year. 

First  Term  (sixteen  weeks): — Isometric  drawing;  mechanism; 
cranks  and  levers. 

Second  Term  (eight  weeks)  : — Continuation  of  work  in  mechanism, 
including  cams. 

Third  Term  (eight  weeks)  : — Detailed  machine  parts  from  assembled 
drawing  of  machines ;  perspective  and  free-hand  working  drawing 
sketches  of  more  complicated  details  and  assembled  machines. 

Fourth  Term  (eight  weeks)  : — Theory  and  practice  in  drawing  gear 
teeth  :  ?piir.  rack,  and  pinion,  internal,  bevel,  and  worm  gears. 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS.  233 

Fourth  Year. 

First  Term : — Class  exercises  in  sketching  (perspective  and  working 
drawing  sketches)  machine  parts;  designing  tools  and  fixtures  for 
machining  these  parts. 

Second,  Third  and  Fourth  Terms : — Individual  work  in  machine 
design,  architectural  drawing  and  design,  wash  drawing,  lettering,  and 
talks  on  modern  drawing  room  practice. 

Features  of  Interest  in  Connection  with  Various  Courses. 

EAST  orange,   new  JERSEY. 

The  total  enrollment  of  the  High  School  is 595 

Art  Craft  Department,  students  enrolled 228 

Mechanical  and  Architectural  Department,  students  enrolled 67 

Free-hand  Drawing  Department,  students  enrolled 56 

"In  a  year  or  two,  when  our  enlarged  High  School  is  a  reality,  more 
forms  of  art,  industrial  and  mechanical  work  will  be  introduced.  Limited 
space  forbids  this  at  present.    We  now  have  the  following : 

"Wood  carving — A  large  variety  of  household  objects.  Cabinet  work. 

"Modeling — In  wax  from  nature,  pictures,  and  the  abstract.  Casts 
decorated  in  color. 

"Metal — Pierced,  etched,  repoussed  home  articles.  Use  of  acids, 
blow-pipe,  solder,  etc. 

"Leather — Pressed,  cut,  stenciled,  beaded,  embroidered. 

"Sewing — Garments. 

"Stenciling,  block-printing,  embroidery — applied  to  a  large  variety 
of  articles. 

"Weaving,  book-plates,  book  binding,  pottery,  basketry. 

"Architectural  and  mechanical  drawing — Plans,  elevations,  sections, 
and  details  of  ordinary  house  construction.     Tracings,  blue  prints." 

"As  to  the  method  pursued,  each  problem  is  individual  and  to  the 
greatest  possible  extent  intimately  personal.  The  pupil's  own  taste  is 
allowed  to  control  as  far  as  possible  both  the  design  and  execution.  Each 
object  to  be  made  is  selected  with  reference  to  a  personal  service  or  to  a 
definite  place  in  the  home.  The  use,  style,  material,  form,  design,  color  and 
finish  are  all  worked  out  with  reference  to  utility  and  to  the  space  ulti- 
mately to  be  covered  or  filled.  Motives  for  designs  are  abstract  or  pupils 
are  encouraged  to  search  for  them  in  nature,  magazines  and  wall-papers, 


234  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

books,  textiles,  and  similar  sources.  Designs  are  made  by  the  students 
first  as  working  drawings ;  they  are  then  finished  in  appropriate  schemes 
with  colored  paper,  crayola,  and  water  color.  All  designs  are  applied, 
pupils  doing  the  cutting,  decorating,  joining  and  finishing.  Completed 
articles  become  the  property  of  the  student  at  the  close  of  the  school  year. 
Materials  are  furnished  in  part  by  the  Board  of  Education."" 

WASHINGTON  IRVING  HIGH  SCHOOL^  NEW  YORK  CITY. 

Costume  Design  in  connection  with  the   Dressmaking  Department. 

Time :  Six  periods  a  week. 

Aim :  Study  of  good  proportion  and  form,  beauty  of  line,  etc. ; 
ability  to  draw  a  gown  both  as  an  original  design  and  from  description ; 
designing  gowns  with  certain  given  limitations ;  designing  gowns  and  their 
accessories,  such  as  belts,  trimmings,  etc. :  embroideries. 

Method :    Posed  figure  from  life.     Conventional  figure. 

Note. — This  school  gives  special  attention  to  this  department  of  work. 

NEWTON,   MASSACHUSETTS." 

The  course  in  picture  study  is  particularly  interesting  as  showing 
how  advantage  is  taken  of  celebrated,  easily  accessible  pictures.  Its  refer- 
ence also  to  processes  and  illustrators,  and  to  modern  landscape,  and 
modern  portrait  painters  is  valuable. 

Outline  for  the  Study  of  Pictorial  Art  in  the  Nenion  High  School. 
I. — Abbey  Pictures  at  Boston  Public  Library. 

Story  and  meaning ;  composition ;  color  scheme ;  Abbey's  work  as  an 
illustrator. 
II. — Illustration :  processes. 

Half-tone — Modern  examples. 

Zinc-plate — Modern   examples. 

Engraving — Diircr  and  modern  work. 

Etching — Rembrandt  and  modern  work. 
III. — Illustrators. 

Subject — Child  life;  society;  architecture,  etc. 

Treatment — Pen  and  ink  ;  color ;  decorative  effect,  etc. 

'^To=ephine    Mahon.    Instructor. 

'^Nathaniel    L.    I'erry,    Supervisor   of   Drawing.  '^' 


ART   ROOM,   NORTH    SIDE   HIGH    SCHOOL,  DENVER,  COLO. 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS.  237 

Second  Year. 
1.— Sargent  Pictures  at  the  Boston  Public  Library. 

Subject;  composition;  color  scheme;  Sargent's  work  as  a  portrait 
painter. 
II. — Modern  Portrait  Painters. 

Cecilia  Beaux,  J.  W.  Alexander,  George  F.  Watts,  Reynolds,  Gains- 
borough, Carolus  Duran. 
III. — Early  Portrait  Painters. 

Rembrandt,  Van  Dyke,  Holbein,  Velasquez,  Raphael. 

Third  Year. 
I. — Landscape  Painting. 

Present  day  artists,  whose  work  can  be  seen,  as:  Enneking,  Wood- 
bur}^,  Davis,  Kaula,  Lucy  Conant,  Monet,  Whistler,  or  others. 
II. — French  Landscape  Painting. 

Millet,  Corot,  Rousseau,  Daubigny,  Constable. 
///. — Early  Landscape  Painting. 

Claude  Lorraine,  Ruisdael,  Rembrandt,  Titian,  Turner. 

Fourth  Year. 
I. — Chavannes  Pictures  at  the  Boston  Public  Library. 

Mural  decoration;  composition;  subject;  color  scheme. 
II. — Mural  Decoration. 

Congressional  Library,  Washington;  State  House,  Boston;  Appellate 
Court,  New  York. 
III. — Early  Mural  Decoration. 

Van  Eyck,  Giotto,  Michaelangelo. 

HIGH    SCHOOLS,   DENVER,    COLORADO. 

The  high  schools  represent  fully  developed  courses  of  art  work  in 
connection  with  general  courses  of  a  classical,  technical,  and  commercial 
character.  When  some  of  the  buildings  were  planned  the  space  devoted 
to  the  art  department  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  director  of  art  with 
instructions  to  prepare  plans  to  be  incorporated  with  those  of  the  architect. 
The  results  in  the  way  of  special  studio  windows,  furniture  and  general 
equipment  are  based  on  the  best  information  obtainable  at  home  and 
abroad.  An  unusual  feature  of  one  school  is  an  exhibition  room  which 
is  used  to  display  various  art  objects  w'ith  the  idea  of  forming  a  museum 


^38'  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

collection  suitable  for  study  by  the  children  of  all  grades.  The  ^Manual 
Training  High  School  has  a  kiln  for  firing  clay. 

Work  relating  to  design  is  given  special  prominence.  The  drawings 
are  large  and  are  often  made  with  reference  to  photo  engraving,  and  at 
other  times  to  their  practical  working  out  in  cloth,  metal,  glass,  leather, 
«tc.  Pupils  have  designed  colored  glass  windows  which  now  form  a  part 
of  the  decorations  of  the  school.  In  one  school  "home  decoration"  has 
been  developed  in  a  very  practical  manner.  The  rooms  to  be  decorated 
and  furnished  were  selected  from  original  home  designs  with  complete 
specifications  made  by  the  girls  in  the  mechanical  drawing  department. 
Illustrations  pertaining  to  the  subject  were  cut  from  extra  copies  of 
'"The  Draughtsman"  and  kindred  publications.  The  illustrations  selected 
covered  the  subject  completely  even  to  details  of  wall  papers,  portieres, 
hardware  and  ornamental  objects.  They  were  pasted  upon  convenient 
cardboard  mounts  and  placed  at  the  disposal  of  all.  These  charts  were 
only  to  stimulate  ideas,  not  for  copying.'* 

One  school  makes  considerable  use  of  Japanese  prints  to  develop 
ideas  of  form  and  color.  In  the  same  school,  a  series  of  lessons  illustrated 
by  lantern  slides  is  given,  showing  masterpieces  of  all  ages  in  architec- 
ture, sculpture,  painting  and  ornament.  All  of  the  high  schools  are 
developing  as  far  as  conditions  will  allow,  arts  and  crafts  work.  The 
results  show  productions  of  practical  value. 

WORCESTER,    MASSACHUSETTS." 

]\Iany  of  our  best  teachers  believe  that  an  important  part  of  their 
work  is  to  cultivate  a  knowledge  and  appreciation  of  those  art  principles 
which  should  be  considered  in.  connection  with  the  home,  public  utilities 
and  personal  adornment.  Some  very  practical  work  is  being  done  in  this 
direction.  Worcester  presents  the  following:  'Tn  connection  with  the 
courses  practical  talks  are  given,  about  monthly,  on  such  subjects  as  good 
and  bad  furniture,  pottery,  rugs  and  carpets,  wall  paper  and  home  sur- 
roundings generally.  These  are  illustrated  by  sketches,  catalogs, 
clippings,  sample  books,  etc.  We  feel  that  these  talks  do  much  more 
good  than  talks  on  the  history  of  art  purely." 

'"C.    \'a!entine    Kirby.    Instructor. 

''Edward   H.    Thornhill,    Director   of    Drawing. 


Ari'LlEl)    DESIGN,    HIGH    SCHOOL,    S'T.    U)L  IS.    MO. 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS.  241 

MINNEAI-OLIS,   MINNESOTA. 

The  general  character  of  the  work  done  in  the  Minneapolis  High 
School  is  similar  to  that  already  described,  and  is  interesting  as  being  in 
accord  with  advanced  thought  in  other  parts  of  the  United  States. 

"First,  as  to  the  conditions  under  which  we  work  in  Minneapolis: 
In  courses  other  than  manual  training,  drawing  is  a  regular,  required 
study  only  during  the  first  five  months  of  the  freshman  year. .  The  manual 
training  students  have  two  years  of  drawing,  one  free-hand  and  one 
mechanical.  The  free-hand  time  is  given  almost  entirely  to  planning  the 
articles  to  be  constructed  in  the  shops  and  making  the  working  drawings. 
If  the  finisiied  article  is  to  be  decorated,  the  design  is  made  and  often 
carried  out  under  the  direction  of  the  drawing  teacher.  The  work  which 
is  done  by  the  students  who  do  not  take  manual  training  follows  more 
closely  the  usual  art  course.  Flowers,  landscape  and  still  life  are  studied 
and  rendered  in  color  and  pencil.  Design  and  its  application  to  leather, 
textile,  metal  or  clay  occupies  the  two  months  before  Christmas,  and 
January  is  given  to  life  study,  lettering  and  poster  making. 

A  five  months'  term  is  too  short  a  time  to  carry  the  students  far 
toward  technical  excellence,  but  it  serves  to  give  to  many  an  appreciative 
sense  of  the  beauty  in  nature  and  a  more  cultivated  taste  in  the  choice  of 
color  harmony  and  design.  These  are.  after  all,  the  chief  results  for 
which  we  strive,  and  it  is  wonderful  what  an  impression  can  be  made  in 
so  short  a  time.'"* 

CLEVELAXD,    OHIO. 

The  plan  of  work  is  noticeable  for  the  liberal  time  devoted  to  draw- 
ing and  to  the  logical  bearing  which  each  part  has  to  the  whole.  Espe- 
cially to  be  noted  and  commended  is  the  fact  that  full  credit  is  given  for 
the  study. 

"The  subject  is  elective  and  is  a  four  year  course — ten  forty-minute 
periods  a  week.  Some  attempt  is  made  to  correlate  the  work  with  other 
high  school  departments.  Thus  the  work  in  botany  is  utilized  and  to  a 
certain  extent  the  work  in  chemistr}-  is  of  service.  Xaturally  the  history 
centres  about  the  art  development  as  a  phase  of  progress  in  culture. 

"The  work  is  unified  as  far  as  possible,  constituting  a  whole.  That  is 
to  say,  design  is  not  taught  as  pure  design,  nor  construction  merely  as 

'*M.    Emma   Roberts,    Supervisor   of   Drawing. 


242  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

construction,  nor  representation  simply  as  such,  but  each  has  a  purpose- 
ful relation  to  other  phases  of  the  work.  So  that  all  study  of  form,  color, 
plant  form,  growth  of  flower,  etc.,  is  utilized  later  as  material  for  design 
or  indirectly  it  becomes  helpful  through  power  gained  to  see  and  to 
represent. 

"The  entire  work  has  for  its  purpose,  art  appreciation,  together  with 
some  power  to  do.  Naturally  the  decorative  and  structural  elements  are 
given  emphasis  over  the  merely  representative.  Representation  and  deco- 
ration are  not  studied  merely  as  processes  of  learning,  but  they  are  applied 
in  processes  of  doing  in  clay,  metal,  leather  and  other  forms  of  construc- 
tion. 'Drawing'  is  a  credit  course  throughout  and  as  high  a  standard  of 
work  is  required  as  in  other  studies.'"* 

SCHOOL    PUBLICATIONS, 

In  some  high  schools  practical  application  of  drawing  and  designing 
is  brought  about  by  the  production  of  "School  Annuals."  Some  have  gone 
further  and  produced  a  monthly  publication.  Such  works  are  undoubtedly 
of  great  benefit  as  they  call  for  the  gaining  of  practical  knowledge  in 
composition,  the  possibilities  of  various  processes  of  reproduction  as  half 
tone  and  zinc  etching;  also  very  definite  consideration  of  finances.  Some 
publications  of  this  character,  the  production  of  which  has  been  guided 
by  the  heads  of  art  departments,  are  worthy  of  the  highest  praise.  In  some 
cases  they  are  quite  equal  to  average  commercial  work,  and  in  others  even 
superior.  Indianapolis,  Indiana,  has  done  some  very  notable  work  in  this 
connection.  "The  Mirror,"  a  monthly  publication  devoted  to  school  in- 
terests, appears  each  month  with  a  new  cover  printed  oftentimes  in  two 
colors.  "The  Annual,  1907"  is  a  delight  to  the  eye.  All  of  these  publica- 
tions contain  numerous  reproductions  of  designs  and  drawings  of  high 
school  pupils. 

'"Florence    Ellis,    Supervisor    of    Drawing. 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  EVENING  SCHOOLS. 

By  James  Frederick  Hopkins. 

ART  education  in  the  evening  schools  of  the  United  States  is  planned 
to  offer  opportunities  for  instruction  to  artisans,  draughtsmen, 
teachers,  students,  and  all  others  employed  during  the  day.  These  schools 
are  in  many  cases  the  only  avenues  leading  to  industrial  art  life  which 
are  open  to  the  masses.  What  these  evening  schools  mean  to  the  wage 
earners  of  the  United  States  can  hardly  be  appreciated  by  the  more 
favored  graduates  of  colleges,  schools  of  technology,  or  of  art  schools 
offering  instruction  in  day  classes.  Such  graduates  are  prepared  for  their 
courses  in  higher  institutions  through  the  various  classes  of  the  primary 
and  secondary  school  systems.  Progress  of  a  more  or  less  routine  nature, 
coupled  with  a  financially  favored  position,  easily  leads  to  the  halls  of 
higher  learning,  and  to  the  ideal  years  of  student  life.  With  the  diploma 
come,  perhaps,  extensive  opportunities  for  travel.  This  training  is  fol- 
lowed, in  the  majority  of  cases,  by  entrance  into  business,  professional, 
or  industrial  life,  in  which  the  way  is  made  easy  through  friendship  or 
fortunate  family  connections. 

Far  different  is  it  with  the  vast  army  of  young  citizens  forced  by 
circumstances  to  enter  industrial  ranks  as  raw  recruits,  and  equally 
strenuous  must  be  the  efforts  of  the  workmen  already  in  the  trade  who 
desire  to  advance.  The  ground  these  workers  gain  is  obtained  only 
through  hard  earned  personal  endeavor.  Few  helping  hands  are  held  out 
to  them  to  make  clear  the  rough  pathway  of  daily  toil.  At  this  point 
stand  the  evening  schools,  offering  art  education  in  its  various  lines, 
making  welcome  the  student  and  the  artisan,  and  offering  the  best  train- 
ing under  the  most  practical  teachers. 

It  is  hard  to  make  the  professional  man  realize  to  what  an  extent  art 
knowledge  enters  into  the  industrial  construction  of  our  daily  life.  The 
wage  earner,  on  the  other  hand,  knows  that  his  way  is  absolutely  blocked, 


244  '-i^T  EDL'CATIOX  IN   THE   UNITED  STATES. 

and  his  income  curtailed,  if  not  cut  off,  unless  he  gains  a  knowledge  of 
art  as  it  applies  lo  industrial  life.  This  knowledge  and  ability  come  only 
through  practice  in  courses  in  free-hand  drawing,  in  making  working 
drawings,  and  in  learning  to  read  blue  prints.  This  training  is  the  chief 
business  of  the  evening  drawing  schools  of  the  United  States. 

INFLUENCE    OF    MECHANICS^    INSTITUTES. 

The  necessity  for  knowledge  of  industrial  art  has  grown  with  the 
industrial  development  of  the  United  States.  There  was  a  time  when 
industrial  plants  were  small  and  individual  w"orkers  came  closely  in  touch 
with  each  other  in  their  daily  occupations.  Those  were  the  days  when  a 
piece  of  chalk  in  the  hands  of  the  foreman  was  used  to  make  the  working 
sketch  on  the  machine  shop  walls  and  the  sharp  stick  or  poker  of  the 
blacksmith  served  to  shape  in  the  sand  of  the  forge  shop,  the  piece  of 
work  to  be  executed.  The  draughting  room  was  unknown  because  noth- 
ing like  unto  the  wonderful  organization  of  the  complex  system  of  modern 
industry  was  dreamed  of  or  even  thought  possible. 

The  development  of  constructive  enterprises  caused  things  to  change 
and  far  sighted  men  began  to  see  the  necessity  of  training  in  construc- 
tional drawing  that  should  give  to  the  foremen  and  workmen  the  ability  to 
visualize  that  which  was  to  be  constracted.  There  were  throughout  the 
country  certain  active  and  energetic  mechanics'  institutes — organizations 
like  those  endowed  by  Benjamin  Franklin  in  Philadelphia  and  Boston — 
that  early  saw  the  necessity  for  evening  classes  in  industrial  art.  ]\Iany 
of  these  institutions  established  classes  in  constructive  drawing,  in  drawing 
for  lithographers,  and  in  a  few  instances  in  very  elementary  industrial 
design.  Some,  like  the  Franklin  Institute  in  Philadelphia  and  the  Lowell 
Foundation  in  Boston,  later  turned  over  their  educational  work  to  other 
organizations.  Of  the  latter  the  ^laryland  Institute,  first  organized  in 
1827.  reorganized  in  1848.  has  maintained  in  unbroken  series  for  fifty-nine 
years  its  evening  classes  in  industrial  art.  The  thousands  of  students 
who  have  gone  out  from  these  various  institutions,  originally  founded  for 
the  promotion  of  the  mechanic  arts,  have  had  tremendous  influence  in  the 
industrial  uplift  and  the  present  supremacv  in  educational  work  of  the 
I'nited  States. 

With  the  passage  by  the  Massachusetts  Legislature  of  1870,  of  the 
act  authorizinir  the  inclusion  of  drawinsf  amons:  other  branches  of  learn- 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  EVENING  SCHOOLS.  247 

ing.  there  opened  a  new  era  in  popular  art  educational  effort.  Up  to  this 
time  the  nieclianics*  institutes,  tradesmen's  societies  and  similar  organiza- 
tions had  offered  the  only  instruction  in  evening  schools.  Now  by  act 
cf  Legislature,  one  State,  at  least,  required  that  every  town  and  city  of 
more  than  ten  thousand  inhabitants  should  annually  make  provision  for 
giving  instruction  in  industrial  or  mechanical  drawing  to  persons  over 
fifteen  years  of  age,  in  either  day  or  evening  schools.  The  immediate 
establishment  of  evening  drawing  schools  in  the  city  of  Boston  and  else- 
v/here  throughout  the  commonwealth,  early  attracted  national  attention 
and  hastened  the  establishment  elsewhere  of  evening  classes  and  schools 
offering  instruction  in  industrial  art. 

There  are  now  few  great  cities  or  important  industrial  centres  in 
the  United  States  which  do  not  offer  instruction  in  one  form  or  another 
in  evening  industrial  art  classes  under  generous  civic  appropriation.  The 
courses  of  study  and  the  lines  of  work  pursued  in  these  schools  and 
classes  under  civic  direction  are  more  or  less  identical  and  have  been 
described  in  a  general  way  under  the  section  of  this  chapter  devoted  to> 
"Courses  of  Work  Undertaken  in  the  Evening  Schools." 

INSTITUTIONS    OFFERING    EVENING    INSTRUCTION. 

The  pioneer  institution  for  the  free  instruction  of  industrial  workers, 
in  applied  science,  art,  and  social  and  political  economy  was  founded  by 
Peter  Cooper  in  New  York  City  in  1859.  Its  far  sighted  founder  aimed 
to  afford  working  people  full  opportunity,  in  day  and  evening  schools,^ 
to  obtain  a  mastery  of  the  technical  trades  and  sciences ;  and  also,  through 
lectures,  the  use  of  reading  rooms,  and  art  and  scientific  collections,  to- 
induce  a  more  discerning  citizenship  and  a  broader  mode  of  living. 

In  this  establishment  of  Cooper  Union  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science  and  Art,  Mr.  Cooper  builded  better  than  he  knew.  Through  his 
philanthropic  efforts  a  door  was  opened  for  men  and  women  who  "might 
otherwise  struggle  through  a  life  of  poverty  and  suffering."  Through  the 
far  reaching  influence  of  this  original,  foundation  thousands  have  indeed 
reached  "competence  and  comfort,"  and  in  recent  years,  under  constant 
support  and  most  generous  endowments,  much  has  been  done  to  make 
this  great  polytechnic  school  "equal  to  the  best  technological  school  now 
established  or  hereafter  to  be  established." 

Cooper  Union  now  offers,  besides  day  courses,  a  most  comprehensive 


248  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

scheme  for  evening  instruction,  in  which  we  find  classes  in  mechanical 
drawing  and  machine  design,  architectural  drawing,  free-hand,  perspec- 
tive, drawing  from  ornament  and  casts,  drawing  from  antique  and  life, 
decorative  design,  and  modeling  in  clay.  The  popularity  of  these  courses 
is  proven  by  the  interest  of  the  students,  the  unusual  records  of  attend- 
ance, and  the  long  waiting  lists  of  students  anxious  to  join  the  school. 

Perhaps  the  clearest  illustration  of  the  work  of  this  school  in  the  heart 
of  America's  greatest  city  can  best  be  pictured  bv  the  following  quotation 
from  the  Forty-eighth  Annual  Report  of  this  world  famous  institution : 
"But  there  were  reasons  which  no  doubt  he  (Peter  Cooper)  con- 
sidered and  which  made  the  site  which  he  selected  most  suitable  for  his 
purpose.  The  city  was  beginning  in  essential  respects  to  subdivide  itself 
into  an  east  side  and  a  west  and  upper  side  or  part.  And  every  indica- 
tion led  to  the  expectation  that  the  east  side,  in  convenient  reach  of 
Cooper  Union,  would  l>ecome  the  home  of  the  great  mass  of  people  who 
work,  people  who  are  to  form  so  important  a  factor  in  the  future  life  of 
the  city.  As  was  to  be  expected,  so  has  the  result  been.  The  Cooper 
Union  building  is  near  the  large  number  of  those  who  wish  to  enjoy  the 
advantages  which  its  instruction  affords.  Time  with  them  is  an  important 
element.  The  saving  of  it  needs  to  be  taken  into  the  count.  In  the  case 
of  a  large  number  of  those  who  attend  its  classes,  the  instruction  of  the 
evening  follows  the  work  of  the  day ;  and  while  no  line  is  drawn  against 
others,  it  is  that  class  to  whom  peculiarly  the  institution  appeals.  What 
this  means,  in  its  full  significance,  can  best  be  realized  by  the  object  lesson 
which  is  furnished  every  evening  at  the  close  of  work  hours,  when  the 
teeming  number  of  those  who  find  employment  west  of  the  Bowery  seek 
their  homes  east  of  it.  Most  of  them  are  young  in  years ;  all  are  at  w'ork 
either  from  necessity  or  from  inclination,  probably  in  many  cases  from 
lioth  :  all  have  a  future  before  them  and  are  ambitious  to  make  of  it  the 
most  that  is  possible ;  and  all  find  near  at  hand  the  sort  of  assistance  which 
is  required  in  aid  of  their  ambitions.  They  represent  the  very  best  class 
of  cur  population.  The}-  may  not  be  possessed  of  large  means.  This 
certainlv  is  no  disparagement.  On  the  contrary,  it  furnishes  the  strongest 
possible  incentive,  stimulated  by  illustrations  everywhere  furnished  by  the 
history  of  those  who.  having  nobody  to  depend  upon  but  themselves, 
found  that  which  furnished  their  best  reliance  for  the  future.  In  other 
lands  there  is  a  'leisure  class' — those  who  do  not  work  and  who  are  not 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  EVENING  SCHOOLS.  251 

compelled  to  beg.  They  are  the  drones  of  public  and  private  life.  It  is 
a  far  different  class  upon  whom  depend  our  hopes  for  the  future.  Those 
to  whom  we  refer  are  at  the  beginning  of  life.  That  they  are  thoroughly 
in  earnest  in  anything  and  everything  which  they  undertake  can  be  readily 
seen.  Mark  the  quickness  of  their  motions,  the  alertness  of  their  walk, 
the  insatiable  hurry  with  which  they  endeavor  to  shorten  the  passage  from 
the  place  where  their  days  have  been  spent  to  the  places  from  which  are  to 
proceed  their  occupations  for  the  evening.  And  it  is  not  difficult  to  discover 
that  all  recognize  the  kind  of  assistance  which  they  need  if  they  are  to 
achieve  most  successfully  the  objects  on  which  they  have  set  their  hearts. 
It  is  impossible  that  they  should  not  be  affected  by  the  enormous  progress 
which  is  being  made  day  by  day  in  the  development  of  the  industries  of 
the  country  of  which  they  are  to  be  citizens,  and  of  the  advantage  in 
grappling  with  its  problems  which  comes  from  the  best  sort  of  equipment 
available  to  them.  Among  them  will  be  found  those  who  are  to  become 
interested  in  the  administration  of  public  affairs,  those  who  are  to  become 
members  of  the  professions,  who  are  to  connect  themselves  with  the  enter- 
prises and  undertakings  which  are  open  in  every  direction  and  at  every 
hand  to  skilled  labor,  those  who  will  show  in  a  practical  way  that  art  and 
science  are  handmaids,  ready  for  use  by  those  who  can  turn  them  to 
good  account."  Thus  is  presented  a  clear  picture  of  the  students  whom 
the  night  schools  of  the  United  States  lead  forward  to  self-supporting 
citizenship. 

Not  until  1887  was  any  great  school  founded  with  objects  similar  to 
those  of  Cooper  Union,  to  aid  the  wage  earner  in  vocational  advance- 
ment. Then  it  was  that  Charles  Pratt,  a  philanthropic  merchant  of 
Brooklyn,  New  York,  founded  in  his  home  city,  Pratt  Institute,  a 
school  for  young  men  and  women  unable  to  attend  college  or  the  scien- 
tific schools  and  to  whom  higher  education  in  practical  lines  had  hitherto 
been  denied.  Cooper  Union  up  to  the  time  of  the  foundation  of  Pratt 
Institute  had  been  hampered  by  lack  of  funds  in  the  attaining  of  its 
greatest  development.  Mr.  Pratt,  on  the  other  hand,  was  able  to  give  to 
Pratt  Institute  all  the  resources  which  large  means  and  a  generous  nature 
made  possible.  His  foundation  may  therefore  be  called  epoch  making  in 
its  breadth  and  practical  conception.  The  purpose  of  this  school  can  best 
be  told  by  one  who  knew  Mr.  Pratt's  plan  most  closely. 

"He  would  have  them  taught,"  he  said,  "to  find  in  work  the  blessed- 


2$2.  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

ness  of  life  and  its  satisfaction ;  in  the  home  its  most  sacred  sphere.  It 
was  to  this  end  that  he  built  the  Institute  and  endowed  it.  It  was  largely 
the  child  of  his  own  brain.  It  was  the  result  of  a  masterful  process  of 
synthesis,  after  a  long  season  of  critical  and  persevering  study  of  the 
problems  involved,  and  the  attempts  hitherto  made  toward  their  solution." 
Following  closely  after  the  establishment  of  this  school  came  the  founda- 
tions of  Drexel  Institute  in  Philadelphia,  Armour  Institute  in  Chicago, 
and  a  goodly  number  of  similar  though  smaller  organizations  throughout 
the  country.  The  immediate  success  of  all  of  these  institutions  and  the 
unparalleled  growth  in  students  of  the  larger  schools  from  hundreds  to 
thousands,  quickly  demonstrated  the  need  of  such  schools  and  the  far 
sighted  philanthropy  of  their  founders. 

There  were  already  a  sufficient  number  of  institutions  for  the  favored 
majority,  turning  out  more  lawyers,  ministers,  doctors,  and  literary  men 
than  could  find  comfortable  employment.  There  were  as  well  the  institu- 
tions of  technology,  training  the  captains  and  generals  of  industrial  life. 
Recognizing  that  the  great  majority  of  American  citizens  would  inherit 
no  wealth,  and  that  they  were  born  with  the  desire  to  earn  their  own 
living,  these  institutions  aimed  to  offer  a  culture  which  consisted  in  the 
promotion  of  vital  relations  to  vital  things.  They  sought  to  prepare  not 
so  much  for  the  ornaments  and  adjuncts  of  life,  but  for  life  itself.  These 
great  schools  stand  for  the  recognition  that  a  m^n's  work  is  his  very  life, 
the  source  of  the  spiritual  as  well  as  the  material  income  which  he  draws. 
These  philanthropic  foundations  have  done  more  to  show  the  educational 
world  that  the  life  work  and  bread  winning  power  of  an  artisan  can  offer 
artistic  and  creative  expression  for  his  soul,  than  any  other  of  the  educa- 
tional influences  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

All  of  these  great  schools  offer  opportunities  for  art  education  in 
most  varied  and  interesting  courses.  Nearly  all  have  so  arranged  their 
courses  of  stud\  that  they  lead  through  several  years'  training  to  such 
certificates  or  diplomas  as  will  testify  to  the  time  spent  and  the  quality 
of  work  accfimplished  in  the  schools.  Mechanical  drawing  easily  leads  all 
courses  in  its  popularity  and  the  demand  for  its  extension.  Following 
this  in  the  order  of  arrangement  come  architectural  drawing  and  design ; 
free-hand  drawing,  embracing  free-hand  perspective,  cast  drawing,  the 
portrait  head  and  drawing  the  figure  in  costume  and  from  the  nude 
model :  clay  mofleling ;  design  both  theoretical  and  applied,  in  some  in- 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  EVENING  SCHOOLS.  255 

stances  passing  into  very  practical  fields  of  costume  design ;  drawing  for 
illustration ;  and  sign  and  fresco  painting. 

THE   PLACE   OF   THE    YOUNG    MEN's    CHRISTIAN    ASSOCIATION    IN    EVENING 

ART  EDUCATION. 

Extending  throughout  the  United  States,  located  in  all  great  cities, 
in  many  important  towns,  at  railroad  centres,  and  at  army  posts,  are 
somewhat  over  a  thousand  centres  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Associa- 
tion. Among  these,  are  at  least  thirty-five  flourishing  Associations  which 
receive  more  than  a  thousand  dollars  a  year  in  tuition  fees  from  the  stu- 
dents of  their  educational  classes.  The  individual  fees  in  each  case  are 
of  the  most  modest  description,  so  that  a  total  of  one  thousand  dollars 
represents  a  considerable  number  of  students.  From  five  of  these  Associ- 
ations alone  comes  the  statement  of  tuition  receipts  of  considerably  over 
■one  hundred  and  twenty-five  thousand  dollars. 

In  the  development  of  high  standards  of  American  manhood  this 
•educational  work  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  plays  a 
most  important  part.  It  aims  to  couple  practical  vocational  education 
with  the  training  for  righteousness  and  upright  dealing,  as  against  the 
■development  of  false  standards  of  shrewdness  which  may  give  men  ability 
to  take  advantage  of  their  fellow  men.  The  field  of  industrial  education 
recognized  by  these  Associations  is,  in  general,  vocational  in  character. 
While  it  may  not  be  classed  as  manual  training  on  the  one  hand,  or 
highly  technical  on  the  other,  yet  it  meets  the  needs  of  the  boys  and  men 
between  these  extremes  who  are  soon  to  be  employed  or  are  perhaps 
already  engaged  in  industry  and  trade.  These  Associations  provide  edu- 
cational courses  adapted  to  the  complex  needs  of  modern  life.  From  their 
classes  there  naturally  extend  wide  influences  upon  the  home,  the  physical 
health  and  culture  of  the  family,  the  daily  life  of  industry  and  com- 
merce. In  this  development  of  all  round  efficient  manhood,  industrial  art 
in  evening  classes  in  these  schools  has  a  very  definite  influence  and 
position. 

Mechanical  drawing  in  the  evening  classes  of  the  Association  leads 
in  popularity  and  in  importance  as  it  does  in  all  similar  evening  educa- 
tional foundations.  It  enrolls  nearly  seven  times  as  many  students  as 
apply  for  architectural  work.  Free-hand  drawing  has  its  place  to  a 
limited  extent,  but  the  great  work  which  the  classes  are  doing  in  in- 


256  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE   UNITED  STATES. 

dustrial  subjects,  is  in  teaching  stvulents  "to  read  blue  prints"  in  tiie 
realm  of  machine  drawing,  locomotive  construction,  steam  engineering, 
automobile  manufacture,  and  machine  design. 

COURSES    OF    WORK    IN    EVENING    INDUSTRIAL    ART    SCHOOLS. 

Mechanical  Dra^cing. — The  courses  in  mechanical  drawing,  machine 
drawing,  machine  design,  or  learning  to  make  and  read  blue  prints,  under 
which  general  titles  the  work  is  classified  throughout  the  United  States, 
follow  very  closely  the  same  general  arrangement  and  teach  practically 
the  same  subjects.  These  courses,  covering  different  periods  from  three 
to  four  years,  largely  aim  to  train  artisans  to  make  and  read  examples 
of  machine  draughting.  They  also  naturally  offer  to  the  machine 
draughtsman  already  in  his  trade,  the  opportunity  to  pursue  more  or  less 
advanced  study  in  machine  design. 

A  comparison  of  the  courses  throughout  the  country  shows  a  pro- 
cedure somewhat  as  follows :  The  entering  student  is  taught  the  making 
and  reading  of  working  drawings  from  simple  models,  the  use  of  instru- 
ments, arrangements  of  views,  the  representation  of  sections,  planning 
simple  developments,  dimensioning,  and  lettering.  Thus  far  a  goodly 
number  of  the  courses  in  machine  and  architectural  drawing  run  parallel. 
Next  the  student  undertakes  the  making  of  working  drawings  of  machine 
details.  This  is  followed  by  the  valuable  practice  of  making  sketches  and 
measurements  of  some  machine,  and  arranging  upon  the  drawing  board 
the  various  details  properly  dimensioned,  and  with  such  finishing  direc- 
tions as  may  1)e  necessary  to  reproduce  the  machine  thus  drawn. 

Later  on  in  many  schools  come  problems  in  descriptive  geometry ; 
working  out  various  intersections,  and  laying  out  developments,  particu- 
larly those  which  apply  to  sheet  metal  construction.  The  principles  of 
crank,  gear,  and  cam  designs  follow  naturally  in  regular  order.  Again 
liie  students  may  carry  out  the  machine  from  measurements,  arranging 
for  the  proper  delineation  of  details,  dimensions,  and  finishing  instruc- 
tions. The  best  and  most  progressive  schools  introduce  instruction  in 
tracing,  lettering,  labelmg,  and  filing  schemes  for  the  drawings. 

In  the  last  years  of  the  course  students  become  competent  to  under- 
take work  in  elementary  machine  design.  The  problems  are  worked  out 
and  the  parts  proportioned  by  rule  and  formulae,  the  entire  form  being 
based  upon  some  unit  of  dimension.     In  some  schools  elementary  knowl- 


LEATHEK    WORK,    HIGH    SCHOOL.    WELLESLEV,    MASS. 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  EVENING  SCHOOLS.  259 

edge  of  strength  of  materials  is  introduced.  The  pupils  are  by  this  time 
ready  to  undertake  advanced  work  in  descriptive  geometry  and  to  master 
fairly  intricate  problems  in  intersections  and  developments. 

Machine  design  now  occupies  the  drawing  board.  Steam  engine 
details,  boiler  construction,  the  study  of  dynamos  and  gas  engines  are 
now  very  much  in  evidence.  In  certain  schools  we  find  that  shop  con- 
struction and  arrangements  are  also  undertaken  by  certain  pupils  who 
are  well  advanced  in  other  subjects.  In  many  schools,  talks  on  shop 
practice  and  mechanical  processes  are  freely  given  in  connection  with  the 
course  throughout  the  year.  The  most  successful  schools  and  those  which 
receive  the  staunchest  and  best  support  from  industrial  interests,  are  those 
wherein  the  advanced  classes  are  conducted  as  in  a  draughting  room  and 
drawings  are  traced  and  finished  with  all  the  hall-marks  of  professional 
practice. 

Architectural  Draining. — The  courses  in  architectural  drawing,  build- 
ing construction,  drawings  for  masons,  or  blue  print  reading,  under  which 
titles  the  work  is  sometimes  advertised,  proceed  as  does  the  mechanical 
drawing  in  courses  of  from  three  to  four  years.  Like  the  work  in  me- 
chanical drawing  the  aim  is  to  train  artisans  to  make  and  read  the  draw- 
ings of  architectural  details.  It  also  offers  to  the  architectural  draughts- 
man the  opportunity  to  pursue  advanced  study  in  architectural  design,  in 
sketching  and  rendering,  and  the  making  of  perspective  drawings  from 
plans  and  elevations.  In  these  subjects  the  courses  throughout  the 
country  naturally  vary  somewhat,  as  do  building  methods,  in  different 
localities.  In  general,  however,  the  work  starts  with  the  making  and 
reading  of  working  drawings  from  simple  models.  As  in  many  of  the 
courses  in  mechanical  drawing  there  is  given  practice  in  the  use  of  instru- 
ments, arrangement  of  views,  obtaining  sections,  planning  simple  develop- 
ments, dimensioning  and  lettering.  This  is  followed  by  the  making  of 
working  drawings  of  architectural  details,  with  the  study  of  plans,  eleva- 
tions, and  interior  and  exterior  details  of  frame,  brick,  or  stone  con- 
struction. 

Next  follow  problems  in  descriptive  geometry,  roof  intersection,  and 
the  developments  which  apply  particularly  to  architectural  construction. 
In  some  courses  architectural  perspective  is  studied  as  well  as  the  pro- 
portions and  details  of  doors,  windows,  balustrades,  arches,  arcades,  and 
the  various  orders  of  architecture.     There  follows  the  designing  of  some 


26o  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

simple  building  from  given  data,  this  being  supplemented  in  some  schools 
by  actual  construction. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  course  advanced  problems  in  descriptive 
geometry,  the  projection  of  shadows,  stair  building,  etc..  are  introduced. 
]\Iore  ambitious  projects  also  in  architectural  design  are  worked  out  in 
plans,  elevations,  and  detai.s.  Some  of  these,  perhaps,  have  been  planned 
and  constructed  by  the  teachers  of  these  classes.  In  a  few  schools,  talks, 
readings,  the  preparation  of  reports  upon  assigned  topics,  quizzes  and 
illustrated  lectures,  together  with  the  preparation  of  note  books,  sketches, 
and  tracings  give  a  peculiar  and  interesting  value  to  these  courses. 

Free-hand  Drcming. — The  courses  in  free-hand  drawing  in  the  night 
schools  of  the  United  States  aim  particularly  for  the  development  of 
power  in  quick  sketching  and  illustration.  These  courses  have  come  in 
to  very  general  demand  owing  to  the  requirements  of  photo-engravers, 
advertisers,  newspaper  illustrators,  and  those  engaged  in  millinery  and 
costume  design.  There  are  also,  in  almost  all  of  the  evening  schools,  a 
goodly  number  of  students  who  are  led  by  their  general  interest  to  under- 
take free-hand  work. 

The  entering  student  is  first  taught  the  principles  of  free-hand  per- 
spective through  the  medium  of  groups  of  simple  models,  still  life,  and 
l:)eautiful  objects.  The  arrangement  of  these  groups  also  provides  op- 
portunities for  instruction  in  the  elements  of  composition.  This  is  followed 
by  drawing  from  historic  ornament,  from  still  life,  and  from  the  antique 
in  light  and  shade.  In  some  schools  drawing  from  the  model  in  costume 
is  introduced,  ai:d  instruction  in  correct  methods  of  drawing  the  figure  is 
given,  together  with  practice  in  the  principles  of  elementary  pictorial 
composition. 

The  students  are  next  ofifered  broader  practice  in  studies  of  still  life 
and  alsii  in  work  from  the  antique  in  light  and  shade.  Those  schools 
where  emphasis  is  laid  on  illustration  now  direct  the  attention  of  their 
students  to  more  extensive  practice  in  drawing  from  the  model  in  cos- 
tume and  the  study  of  various  mediums  for  costume  design  and  illustra- 
tion. The  advanced  students  in  the  more  progressive  schools  now  devote 
at  lcs?t  a  ye?.r  to  this  subject  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others.  We  find 
illustrations  of  courses  Vvhich  provide  for  the  portrait  head,  others  for 
the  making  of  costume  studies  for  illustrations.  In  all  schools  attention 
is  given  to  the  dififerent  mediums:  charcoal,  colored  chalks,  and  pen  and 


l^^m 


imm 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  EVENING  SCHOOLS.  263, 

ink,  while  from  time  to  time  talks  are  given  on  the  different  processes 
of  reproduction. 

All  this  leads  very  naturally  to  drawing  from  the  nude.  In  certain 
cities  late  afternoon  classes  for  women  are  offered  in  this  subject,  and 
are  largely  attended ;  while  the  evening  classes  are  naturally  more  popular 
with  the  men  who  are  employed  during  the  day. 

Design. — A  great  deal  of  attention  in  recent  years  has  been  paid  to 
the  courses  in  design  and  composition,  common  to  all  evening  schools 
offering  any  free-hand  instruction.  These  courses  offer  special  training 
in  the  principles  of  design  and  composition  and  in  the  technical  limitations 
of  applied  design.  The  work  extends  over  three  to  four  years  and  de- 
velops some  very  excellent  results,  sound  in  principle  and  of  much 
originality.  The  application  of  this  work  in  the  schools  which  are  strongly 
vocational  in  character,  leads  very  definitely  to  the  fields  of  wall  paper 
designing,  textiles,  leaded  glass,  ceramics,  furniture,  iron  work,  interior 
decoration,  etc. 

In  several  progressive  schools  excellent  work  has  been  done  in  house- 
hold decoration.  Salesmen,  commercial  people,  and  decorators,  as  well 
as  home  makers,  have  been  very  deeply  interested  in  these  courses,  which 
have  been  largely  attended  and  productive  of  most  excellent  results. 
Another  feature  of  these  courses  in  design  and  composition  is  the  oppor- 
tunity W'hich  has  been  offered  to  teachers  to  study  the  application  of  art 
instruction  in  the  department  of  manual  training.  The  latter  have 
sought  knowledge  of  such  design  as  would  be  applicable  to  whittling  and 
bench  work,  wood  carving  and  leather  tooling,  basketry  and  weaving. 
Modeling  of  simple  ornamental  and  useful  objects  in  wood  and  leather 
has  also  been  undertaken,  as  well  as  the  study  of  design  which  may  be 
executed  m  metal. 

Modeling. — Most  of  the  important  schools  throughout  the  country 
offer  evening  courses  in  modeling,  and  in  all  such  schools  courses  are 
arranged  so  as  to  offer  helpful  training  to  beginners  as  well  as  to  ad- 
vanced workers.  There  seem  to  be  three  classes  of  people  to  whom 
these  courses  appeal.  The  first  of  these,  including  sculptors  and  stone 
cutters,  as  well  as  workers  in  terra  cotta,  take  up  modeling  as  an  aid  in 
their  profession.  A  second  group  embraces  the  teachers  and  advanced 
students  who  wish  in  the  modeling  classes  to  supplement  their  free-hand 
training.    A  third  group  of  workers  comprises  the  architectural  draughts- 


264  '-^^7"  EDUCATION  IN   THE  UNITED  STATES. 

men  who  wish  to  develop  greater  ability  in  representing  the  details  of 
ornament  in  relief.  \Mtli  these  we  find  a  large  number  of  students  who 
turn  to  modeling  as  an  expression  of  their  work  in  applied  design. 
Judging  from  the  exhibitions  of  the  work  shown  from  time  to  time,  all 
students  model  from  casts,  plants,  flat  copies,  original  designs,  the  costume 
model,  and  the  head,  and  study  the  principles  of  decoration  as  applied  to 
stone,  wood,  and  metal.  Students  who  specialize  in  this  subject  have 
shown  smaller  objects,  like  candlesticks,  drinking  fountains,  vases,  clock 
cases,  ink  stands,  tiles,  and  the  like,  which  are  of  a  character  to  be  cast 
in  metal  or  baked  in  a  kiln. 

Ship  Draughting. — In  certain  public  evening  schools'  located  at  the 
seaports  or  close  to  great  marine  industries,  may  be  found  courses  in 
ship  draughting  and  marine  design.  These  courses,  from  three  to  four 
years  in  length,  include  the  details  of  ship  design  and  delineation  and 
fit  one  to  perform  the  calculations  incident  to  daily  practice  in  marine 
construction. 

As  in  the  case  of  the  architectural  and  mechanical  courses,  the 
student  is  first  taught  the  making  and  reading  of  working  drawings  from 
simple  models.  The  elements  of  projection,  the  finding  and  locating  of 
points  and  lines,  traces  of  planes,  simple  intersections,  and  other  subjects 
of  descriptive  geometry  engage  their  attention.  This  is  follow-ed  by 
practice  in  draughting  a  vessel  and  later  by  the  drawing  of  sheer,  half 
breadtli.  and  body  plans,  together  with  the  correcting  and  harmonizing 
of  systems  of  lines.  Later  still  in  some  of  the  courses  comes  the  prepara- 
tion of  complete  plans  of  at  least  two  kinds  of  vessels.  First  the  lines  of 
a  sailing  vessel,  with  the  drawing  of  the  hull,  spar,  and  sail  plans,  gives 
insight  into  the  methods  of  the  ship  yard  ;  then  the  project  for  a  steel 
vessel  propelled  bv  steam.  This  in  turn  is  carried  through  hull  construc- 
tion and  details  until  the  pupil  is  familiar  with  modern  methods  of  marine 
steel  construction. 

Tn  the  most  up  to  date  schools  a  great  deal  of  attention  has  been 
given  recently  to  the  design  and  calculations  of  motor  boat  construction. 
Much  interesting  mathematical  calculation  is  also  a  part  of  all  this  work. 

Structural  Draughting. — In  the  great  American  cities  and  in  the 
engineering  projects  for  which  the  country  is  so  deservedly  famous,  the 
use  of  steel  in  tall  buildings,  bridges,  etc..  has  called  for  the  introduction 

^Xcw    Vork   Citv.    Boston. 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  EVENING  SCHOOLS.  267 

of  an  entirely  new  course  in  draughting.  Under  the  general  title  of 
structural  drawing  this  course  has  been  introduced  to  a  limited  extent  in 
the  most  progressive  evening  centres.  The  entering  student  is  first  taught 
to  make  simple  working  drawings,  the  use  of  instruments  and  the 
planning  of  views,  representations  of  sections,  all  properly  dimensioned 
and  lettered.  Working  drawings  of  structural  details  follow,  leading  to 
the  detail  drawing  of  certain  elements  of  construction,  as,  for  instance, 
floor  framing  or  column  construction.  Students  are  instructed  in  the  use 
of  the  steel  handbook  and  are  given  practice  in  the  general  routine  of  the 
draughting  office. 

The  more  advanced  students  undertake  problems  in  descriptive 
geometry,  intersections,  and  developments.  Notes  on  strength  of  ma- 
terials and  design  under  given  formulae  of  joints,  plates,  and  bearing 
surfaces,  follow  in  regular  order.  Practice  is  also  given  in  detail  draw- 
ings of  trusses,  columns,  and  girders,  representing  more  complex  types  of 
construction.  All  this  is  supplemented  by  the  planning  of  a  given  con- 
struction, as  the  details  of  roof,  valley,  and  hip  intersections.  Instruction 
is  given  in  strength  of  materials  and  formulas  for  calculating  tension, 
compression,  bending  moment,  and  sheer,  as  well  as  the  computation  and 
delineation  of  diagrams  for  dead  weight,  wind,  and  snow  loads  on  roof 
trusses.  These  courses  usually  close  with  the  designing  and  detailing 
of  some  common  structure,  as  a  roof,  a  mill  building,  or  bridge  detail ; 
as  courses  they  are  becoming  more  and  more  popular  and  are  enrolling 
a  constantly  increasing  number  of  students. 

TYPES  or  STUDENTS  IN  EVENING  ART  SCHOOLS. 

I'he  varietv  of  trades  and  professions  represented  among  the  pupils 
who  enter  eveninsf  art  schools  is  most  interesting  and  shows  that  ambition 
and  a  desire  to  advance  is  not  limited  to  any  one  line  of  work.  First  in 
numbers  come  the  student  class.  This  includes  a  large  number  of  boys 
not  yet  in  their  trades  or  vocations  but  anxious  to  obtain  information, 
to  do  good  work,  and  enjoy  pleasant  evenings  with  congenial  fellow- 
ship. Next  in  order  come  the  clerks,  those  who  may  be  in  lines  of  busi- 
ness wherein  a  knowledge  of  drawing  is  necessary,  or  those  who  see 
opportunities  for  advancement  through  the  classes  of  the  evening  schools. 
Then  follow  the  machinists,  wookworkers.  painters,  masons,  plumbers, 
electricians,  stone  cutters,  and   molders.  who  find  that  ability  to  read 


268  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

blue  prints  and  estimate  upon  drawings  is  a  part  of  their  daily  work. 
The  teachers,  draughtsmen,  dressmakers  and  milHners,  engravers,  de- 
signers and  decorators,  printers,  engineers  and  pattern  makers,  come  next 
in  order.  There  are  the  boiler  makers,  too,  the  laborers,  shipwrights, 
railroad  employees,  structural  iron  workers  and  blacksmiths,  all  of  whom 
tend  toward  these  evening  schools  for  the  great  opportunities  which  they 
offer.  Classed  with  all  of  these  workers  follows  a  long  list  of  many 
trades,  professions,  and  vocations,  representing  industrial,  commercial, 
and  social  activities  of  the  city  or  section  in  which  a  school  may  be 
located. 

The  purpose  which  all  these  students  have  in  undertaking  this  work 
may  be  summed  up  broadly  under  the  two  heads  of  vocational  necessity 
and  personal  ambition.  "Drawing  is  required  in  my  business,"  say  most 
of  the  workers  when  you  ask  them  why  they  entered  schools.  "To  im- 
prove mv  chances."  "to  obtain  a  higher  position."  "to  gain  more  wages,'" 
say  the  balance  of  the  ambitious  fellows  with  whom  to  work  in  evening 
schools  is  such  an  inspiration  and  a  pleasure. 

The  number  of  young  men  who  gained  their  first  insight  into  indus- 
trial art  life  in  tb.e  classes  of  these  evening  schools,  and  who  today  are 
bearing  their  part  in  the  burden  of  the  world's  activities,  is  legion.  The 
artists,  architects,  designers,  and  teachers  who  received  their  first  inspira- 
tion and  early  sound  training  in  such  classes  would  represent  a  long  and 
most  interesting  list.  The  office  boys,  apprentices,  and  young  lads  just 
beginning  to  climb  the  ladder  who  owe  their  first  awakening  to  the  possi- 
bilities of  applied  art  in  industrial  life,  would  make  a  list  far  longer.  The 
artisans  already  in  their  vocation,  at  the  limit  of  their  ability,  who  have 
gained  new  life  and  opportunity  through  evening  studies,  represent  an 
equally  great  industrial  army. 

The  intluence  upon  the  environment  in  which  these  evening  art 
schools  and  classes  are  located  and  from  which  these  earnest  workers  go 
out  into  industrial  life  is  a  power  for  good  which  it  is  impossible  to 
measure.  Those  sections  of  the  United  States  which  are  without  raw 
materials  nmst  necessarily  depend  for  their  industrial  supremacy  upon 
the  superior  intelligence  and  skill  of  their  citizens.  They  must  provide 
instruction  for  the  development  of  ideas  and  training  in  industrial  voca- 
tions which  will  give  them  the  power  to  compete  successfully  with  the 
areas  ricli  in  material  resources.      They  can  excel  in  the  development  of 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  EVENING  SCHOOLS.  269 

the  higher  branches  of  industrial  products  and  compete  with  other  sec- 
tions only  to  the  extent  that  they  can  do  better  work,  and  turn  out  a  finer 
industrial  product  than  the  untrained  worker. 

In  the  splendid  systems  of  art  education  in  the  great  cities,  in  the 
technical  schools  and  people's  institutes,  in  the  art  schools  offering  even- 
ing instruction,  there  is  growing  up  a  system  which  is  giving  to  industrial 
art  a  popular  dignity.  Art  as  applied  to  industry  is  proving  itself  a 
necessity,  not  a  luxury,  and  from  the  many  class  rooms,  with  their  grow- 
ing equipments  and  increasing  appropriation,  are  going  out  thousands  of 
young  people,  better  able  than  those  of  a  generation  ago,  to  develop 
material  resources  and  raise  the  national  standards  of  taste. 


METAL    WORK.    SECOND    YEAR^   TECHNICAL    HIGH    SCHOOL.    PROVIDENCE.   R.    I. 


ART  EDUCATION    IN    NORMAL    SCHOOLS. 

Ijy  Harriet  Cecil  Magee. 

rHE  national  vitality  of  a  people  is  one  of  the  most  mysterious  prob- 
lems of  history.  It  rises  to  a  certain  height  and  then  dies  down 
jigain  like  some  great  conflagration,  leaving  the  ashes  of  civilization  behind 
it.  The  German  mind  accounts  for  this  in  a  very  poetical  way,  namely, 
that  "the  world-spirit  takes  up  its  abode  first  in  one  country  and  then  in 
another,  appearing  at  one  time  in  art  and  again  in  politics  or  religion." 
It  is  the  appearance  of  this  world-spirit  in  art  education  that  has  greatly 
influenced  the  teaching  of  drawing  in  the  normal  schools  of  North 
America. 

The  renascence  of  art  in  what  has  been  called  "the  new  education" 
is  an  illumination  of  truth  by  a  sunburst  of  that  feeling  known  as  the 
Greek  spirit,  whose  renascence  has  been  placed  historically  five  or  six 
centuries  ago  in  Italy.  When  this  spirit  entered  into  Italian  nationality, 
and  rose  to  its  flood-tide  in  the  great  personalities  of  Leonardo,  Raphael 
and  Michelangelo,  it  grappled  with  problems  of  highest  interest,  and 
offered  results  that  can  never  lose  their  value. 

For  the  solution  of  such  problems  certain  conditions  are  necessary. 
There  must  be  freedom,  individuality  and  independence  on  the  part  of 
the  people.  So  long  as  a  nation  maintains  a  form  of  government  like 
that  of  ancient  Egjpt,  military  Rome,  or  Puritan  New  England  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  art  development  is  almost  impossible.  But  given  the 
freedom  of  ancient  Greece,  when  almost  every  city  had  its  own  independent 
government,  or  the  freedom  of  the  Italian  cities  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
then  marvelous  art  development  is  the  result.  May  not  the  freedom  of 
modern  times,  especially  that  freedom  in  educational  matters  in  American 
institutions,  have  been  one  of  the  influences  that  has  brought  about  this 
renascence  of  art  in  education?  An  American  writer  has  said  that.  "If 
art  be  not  a  growth  out  of  faith,  it  is  always  the  result  of  a  faith  that  has 
been."  And  may  it  not  be  that  the  excellencies  of  American  art  education 
today  are  due  partly  to  those  qualities  recognized  as  essentially  .American, 


272  ART  EDiX.iTIOS  L\   THE  UNITED  STATES. 

qualities  transmitted  to  the  men  of  the  present  from  conscientious 
ancestors  of  a  most  reHgious,  though  inartistic,  age? 

The  first  influence  of  this  spirit  in  art  education  came  to  us  from 
Pestalozzi.  While  he  cannot  be  said  to  be  one  of  the  art  educators  in  this 
new  movement,  he  manifested  the  spirit  that  now  actuates  every  true 
teacher  of  art.  One  of  the  earHest  traces  of  Pestalozzian  methods  in  art 
education  in  America  is  found  in  the  application  of  these  methods  to  the 
teaching  of  drawing  by  Professor  Herman  Krusi.  in  the  Oswego  Normal 
School  in  1862. 

Another  name  that  is  linked  with  that  of  Pestalozzi  in  its  influence 
upon  drawing  in  normal  schools  is  that  of  Frederick  Froebel.  Living  over 
a  score  of  years  after  Pestalozzi,  he  was  possessed  of  the  same  spirit  and 
looked  to  Nature  for  the  principles  of  education.  This  turning  to  Nature 
shows  one  point  of  similarity  between  the  renascence  of  art  five  or  six 
hundred  years  ago  and  the  renascence  of  art  in  the  education  of  the 
present.  As  Giotto  turned  to  his  sheep  on  the  hills  near  Florence  for  his 
first  model,  and  scratched  on  a  bit  of  slate  that  which  revealed  to  the 
master  the  genius  of  Italy's  greatest  realist,  so  today  the  children  in  our 
schools  go  to  Nature  for  the  models  for  their  drawing  lessons.  In  our 
towns  and  cities  they  are  taken  to  the  parks  and  playgrounds,  and  later 
in  the  schoolroom  draw  from  memory  what  they  have  observed.  In 
villages  and  country  places  they  have  but  to.  look  out  of  the  schoolroom 
window  for  their  inspiration.  The  Froebelian  wave  which  has  swept 
across  the  continent  from  Nova  Scotia  to  Alaska,  from  Quebec  to  Mexico. 
has  greatly  influenced  methods  of  teaching  drawing  in  our  normal  schools. 

After  a  few  years  certain  art  educators  said  we  must  look  to  the  art 
of  the  past  for  ideas,  and  history  of  art  became  a  part  of  every  w'ell 
planned  course  of  art  instruction.  Later  this  was  found  to  run  ofif  into 
biography  and  history,  to  the  neglect  of  the  cultivation  of  artistic  feeling. 
\\'hole  classes  of  children  and  youths  were  found  in  our  normal  schools 
well  able  to  discuss  quite  learnedly  dates,  periods  and  national  influences 
upon  art  and  artists  without  a  quickening  pulse  when  a  reproduction  of 
a  masterpiece  was  placed  before  them.  Then  came  the  effort  to  have  the 
work  of  art  studied  for  itself  and  for  the  feeling  it  inspired,  rather  than 
simply  to  find  its  place  in  the  art  development  of  a  nation  or  individual, 
and  we  had  another  phase  of  art  education,  namely,  that  of  art  apprecia- 
tion through  picture  stiuly. 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  NORMAL  SCHOOLS.  273 

The  latest  phase  of  the  work  of  art  education  to  which  particular 
attention  is  now  being  given  by  the  teachers  of  drawing  in  normal  schools 
is  the  study  of  decorative  design  and  its  application  to  objects  constructed 
by  the  students,  such  as  pottery,  basketry,  woven  rugs,  curtains,  etc.,  and 
the  application  of  decoration  to  such  materials  as  leather,  cloth,  wood 
and  metal, 

HISTORICAL   SKETCH. 

That  life  must  complete  itself  in  adequate  expression,  was  recognized 
at  an  early  date  in  the  development  of  normal  school  problems  in  the 
United  States  of  North  America.  From  the  founding  of  the  first  normal 
schools  in  Massachusetts  in  1839  to  the  present,  some  phase  of  art  instruc- 
tion has  been  a  part  of  the  course  of  study  in  normal  schools.  By  these 
schools  "art  has  never  been  tolerated  as  a  weakness."  It  has  always  been 
placed  on  a  basis  with  the  other  branches  in  the  curriculum  and  considered 
upon  the  ground  of  its  utilitarian  and  cultural  results. 

Tracing  the  subject  of  drawing  from  the  establishment  of  the 
first  normal  schools  we  find  the  following  dates  of  interest :  In  1839 
State  normal  schools  were  established  at  West  Newton,  Bridgewater 
and  Westfield,  Massachusetts,  and  drawing  was  placed  in  the  study 
course  of  the  second  year's  work.  In  1850  instruction  in  drawing  was 
given  in  the  Normal  School  of  New  Britain.  Connecticut;  and  in  1852 
the  first  special  instructor  in  drawing  was  appointed  for  this  school.  In 
1856  a  State  normal  school  was  established  at  Trenton.  New  Jersey.  Some 
form  of  art  instruction  has  been  in  the  curriculum  of  this  school  from  the 
first.  In  1859  art  instruction  was  introduced  into  the  Michigan  State 
Normal  College,  located  at  Ypsilanti,  and  in  1890  the  course  in  this  branch 
was  enlarged  so  as  to  enable  students  who  desired  to  do  so,  to  prepare 
not  only  to  teach,  but  also  to  supervise  drawing  in  the  public  schools  of  the 
State.  In  1862,  in  the  Normal  and  Training  School.  Oswego.  New  York, 
drawing  was  taught  by  Prof.  Herman  Krusi.  Professor  Krusi  applied 
Pestalozzian  methods  to  the  teaching  of  drawing,  and  in  1876  published 
a  book  on  drawing.  The  Krusi  Drawing  Books,  for  the  use  of  teachers 
and  pupils,  were  published  at  the  same  time  or  a  little  later,  and  were 
for  a  number  of  years  more  or  less  in  use  throughout  the  countr}\ 

In  1870  the  educational  movement  for  aesthetic  industrial  art  training 
was  definitely  begun  in  the  State  of  Massachusetts,  and  in  the  following 


274  ^-"^T  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

year  Walter  Smith,  art  master  in  charge  of  the  school  at  Leeds. 
England,  was  called  to  Boston  and  given  the  direction  of  art  education 
in  the  State  of  Massachusetts.  The  more  general  interest  taken  by  the 
whole  countr}'  in  art  and  in  artistic  industries  may  be  fairly  attributed, 
in  part,  to  this  educational  movement,  in  connection  with  which  the  names 
of  John  D.  Philbrick  and  Charles  C.  Perkins  are  closely  connected. 
This  movement  was  directed  also  toward  the  introduction  of  aesthetic 
industrial  art  training  in  the  higher  institutions  of  learning. 

The  movements  begun  in  1870  were  stimulated  and  widely  extended 
through  the  impressions  made  by  the  artistic  industries  of  Asia  and 
Europe,  shown  in  1876  at  the  Centennial  Exposition  in  Philadelphia. 
These  exhibits  gave  to  the  multitudes  who  saw  them  their  first  conception 
of  the  marvelous  extent  and  glory  of  the  hitherto  unknown  realm  of  art. 
Americans  awoke  to  the  necessity  of  trained  workers  in  all  industrial  arts, 
and  the  fact  that  the  common  school  training  of  that  time  gave  very  little, 
if  any.  practical  advantage  in  fitting  the  pupils  to  become  skillful  workers. 
It  was  urged  that  drawing  should  be  made  a  required  branch  of  all  free 
public  education.  From  this  demand  upon  the  public  schools  came  the 
necessity  for  the  teachers,  prepared  for  their  work  by  the  normal  schools 
of  the  country,  to  receive  in  these  normal  schools  such  a  course  of  training 
as  would  best  fit  them  for  their  work.  Hence  normal  schools,  not  at  this 
time  giving  much  attention  to  drawing  and  the  plastic  arts,  began  to  feel 
the  necessity  for  offering  longer  and  more  carefully  planned  courses  of 
training  in  drawing  and  art  education  in  general. 

In  1893  the  Columbian  Exposition,  held  in  Chicago,  gave  another 
impetus  to  art  education,  especially  in  the  West  and  Middle  West.  The 
Western  Drawing  Teachers'  Association  was  formed  in  this  year.  Teachers 
of  drawing  in  normal  schools  have  been  from  the  beginning  to  the  present 
time  among  the  most  earnest  officers  and  members  of  the  association. 

INFLUENCE  OF   NORMAL  SCHOOLS  ON   GENERAL   EDUCATION. 

According  to  the  report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  for  the 
year  1905.  there  are  in  the  United  States  of  North  America  two  hundred 
and  seventy-six  normal  schools.  One  hundred  and  eighty  of  these  are 
public,  and  the  others  private  normal  schools.  In  the  State  of  New  York 
there  are  nineteen  normal  schools ;  in  Pennsylvania,  seventeen ;  in  Massa- 
chusetts,   sixteen;    Wisconsin   and    North    Carolina   have   thirteen   each; 


APPLIED  DESIGN,  NORTH   EAST    MANUAL  TRAINING 
HIGH    SCHOOL,    PHILADELPHIA,    PA. 


% 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  NORMAL  SCHOOLS.  277 

Illinois,  eleven ;  Alabama,  Georgia  and  Ohio,  ten  each ;  Tennessee,  nine ; 
Kentucky,  Iowa,  Minnesota,  Missouri  and  Indiana,  eight  each;  West 
Virginia  and  Michigan,  seven  each;  Maine,  six;  California,  Connecticut, 
Nebraska,  Mississippi  and  Virginia,  five  each ;  other  States,  four  or  less. 

Ihe  fact  that  drawing  is  taught  in  many  of  these  two  hundred  and 
seveutv-six  schools  causes  a  dissemination  of  art  knowledge  far  and  wide 
among  the  people.  The  students  attending  normal  schools,  except  such 
of  the  latter  as  are  located  in  large  cities,  come  from  small  towns,  villages 
and  remote  country  places,  where  they  have  seen  little  or  nothing  of 
the  art  of  the  past  or  present.  The  course  of  instruction  given  is 
planned  to  supplement  the  previous  educational  training  of  these  workers. 
Efforts  are  made  to  show  them  the  relation  of  architecture  and  sculpture 
to  history  and  geography ;  to  introduce  them  to  the  art  works  of  the  past 
as  they  are  made  acquainted  with  the  literature  of  previous  centuries,  and 
also  to  show  the  relation  between  art  and  art  industries  both  past  and 
present.  This  training  cultivates  both  general  intelligence  and  art  appre- 
ciation. 

There  are  usually  in  the  town  or  city  where  the  nomial  school  is 
located,  certain  public  buildings  affording  examples  of  historic  ornament, 
which  may  serve  to  illustrate  many  terms  used  in  the  somewhat  technical 
art  books  to  which  the  student  has  access.  These  books  for  reference  in 
art  matters  are  further  supplemented  by  reproductions  of  art  works  and 
art  lectures,  illustrated  by  stereopticon  slides.  In  some  schools  the 
teacher  of  drawing  gives  these  lectures  to  the  class  receiving  art  instruc- 
tion and  other  students  are  allowed  to  be  present.  In  other  schools  the 
pictures  are  thrown  on  the  screen,  and  members  of  the  student  body  give 
the  verbal  explanations.  Exhibitions  of  fine  reproductions  of  the  best 
historic  art  are  sometimes  given  by  art  publishing  houses  from  Boston, 
New  York,  Chicago  and  other  art  centers.  Occasionally  some  originals 
of  value  are  obtained  and  exhibited  free  of  charge  to  the  whole  school. 

In  the  various  ways  described  general  art  information  is  brought  to 
the  students,  and  they  are  taught  to  appreciate  what  is  good  in  art.  When 
the  young  men  and  women  so  trained  and  educated  go  out  to  teach,  they 
take  with  them  the  art  knowledge  acquired  and  the  appreciation  gained, 
and  attempt  at  once  to  impart  the  same  to  the  pupils  in  their  schools. 
Thus  a  wide  influence  is  exerted  upon  general  education,  bringing  intelli- 
gent understanding  of  art  and  art  appreciation    to  nniltitudcs  of  people 


278  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

widely  separated  from  art  centers.  The  normal  schools  in  the  Middle 
West  and  Western  States  are  today  doing  for  the  people  in  these  States 
what  the  academy  and  small  college  did  fifty  years  ago  for  the  people  in 
the  Eastern  States.  Efforts  are  being  made  in  our  most  progressive  normal 
schools  to  make  the  school  "a  great  center  of  propulsive  education  from 
which  enlightenment  concerning  art  and  industry  is  to  be  transmitted  in 
all  manner  of  ways  to  every  nook  and  corner  of  the  territory  which  it 
serves,  and  to  every  human  being  who  can  be  reached  by  its  influence.'" 

Of  great  interest  in  the  consideration  of  work  done  in  drawing  in 
normal  schools,  is  the  influence  and  result  of  pedagogical  experiments 
made  in  the  training  departments  in  the  teaching  of  form  and  its  adequate 
expression  to  children  of  different  ages.  All  the  years  of  the  child's 
school  life,  from  the  kindergarten  to  the  high  school,  and  sometimes 
through  the  high  school,  are  represented  in  the  training  department  of 
these  normal  schools.  These  departments  are  sometimes  called  "Practice 
Schools,"  because  the  students  in  the  normal  school  proper  teach  the  chil- 
dren under  the  supervision  of  critic  teachers,  and  practice  the  methods 
taught  them  by  their  own  instructors.  In  this  way  the  heads  of  depart- 
ments and  those  teachers  who  are  particularly  responsible  for  the  psycho- 
logical and  pedagogical  training  given  to  the  students,  have  ample  oppor- 
tunity of  seeing  whether  their  theories  are  practical  or  otherwise. 

As  the  number  of  pupils  in  the  classes  in  the  training  departments 
may  be  made  small  or  large  to  create  favorable  conditions,  many  experi- 
ments may  be  tried  that  could  not  be  attempted  in  an  ordinary  graded 
school.  With  a  small  group  of  children  individual  tendencies  and  charac- 
teristics are  noted.  Children  are  given  time  to  think  and  work  out  their 
problems  independently,  or,  as  one  small  pupil  put  it:  "You  think  and 
think,  and  then  you  draw  round  the  think,"  Thus  advantages  are  afforded 
for  working  out  interesting  problems  and  establishing  important  data  as  a 
basis  upon  which  the  manual  arts  as  school  subjects  may  reasonably  rest. 
There  is  constant  effort  to  make  drawing  and  the  other  manual  arts  in 
the  curriculum  of  the  training  departments  thought  subjects.  The  cul- 
tural results  are  most  earnestly  sought  for,  and  the  material  results  are 
judged  of  value  only  in  so  far  as  they  are  the  exponents  of  good  thinking 
and  independent  expressions  of  self-directed  activity. 

'Halsey  Cooley  Ives,   LL.D.    (in    1905   Annual  Report  of  Commissioner  of  Education)   says. 

tliis    of   the    art    museum. 


LEATHER   BELTS,   FIRST  TO  FOURTH    YEARS,   HIGH    SCHOOL,   WEST    NEWTON,    MASS. 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  NORMAL  SCHOOLS.  281 

COURSES  OF  STUDY  AND  GENERAL  PLAN. 

1  he  fact  has  long  been  recognized  by  educators  in  the  United  States 
that  the  term  "Drawing"  is  too  narrow  a  term  to  cover  the  subjects 
taught  under  it  in  our  normal  schools.  "Art  Education,"  "Art  Instruc- 
tion," 'The  Graphic  Arts"  and  "Art"  are  terms  other  than  drawing  now 
in  use  in  various  normal  schools.  It  seems  exceedingly  difficult  to  decide 
upon  a  term  broad  enough  and  yet  sufficiently  definite  to  be  used  in  the 
curriculum  of  these  schools.  Until  the  present  no  better  term  than 
"Drawing  in  Normal  Schools"  has  been  generally  adopted.  "Drawing 
and  Other  Manual  Arts  as  School  Subjects"  defines  more  clearly  the 
courses  of  study  at  present  offered  in  our  normal  schools  under  the  head 
of  "Drawing." 

The  courses  of  study  and  plans  for  teaching  drawing  in  normal 
schools  of  the  United  States  are  in  nearly  all  schools  prepared  by  the 
head  of  the  Department  of  Drawing  or  Art  Instruction,  and  are  therefore 
quite  individual.  They  reflect  the  educational  ideas  of  the  instructor  and 
school,  and  do  not  always  show  the  conditions  of  art  education  in  the 
State  in  which  the  school  is  located.  One  general  aim  of  the  normal 
school  is  to  lift  the  ideals  of  education  and  establish  ideals  worthy  of 
respect  and  emulation  by  the  elementary  and  high  schools  of  the  State. 
Therefore,  the  methods  employed  in  teaching  drawing  aim  to  be  in  accord- 
ance with  the  findings  of  psychological  and  pedagogical  science,  and  the 
courses  of  study  have  been  based  upon  such  findings. 

In  general,  the  purpose  of  instruction  given  under  drawing  in  normal 
schools  may  be  stated  as  follows : 

(a)  To  prepare  the  students  to  teach  drawing  in  the  schools  of  the 
State  and  to  use  graphic  expression  in  illustrating  other  branches  taught 
in  these  schools.  Since  in  all  our  cities  and  towns  the  courses  of  study 
call  for  instruction  in  drawing,  the  graduates  of  our  normal  schools  find 
it  incumbent  upon  them  to  be  fitted  by  the  normal  schools  to  give  instruc- 
tion in  drawing,  as  they  are  fitted  by  these  schools  to  give  instruction  in 
arithmetic,  geography  and  the  other  so  called  "common  branches"  in  the 
public  school  curriculum. 

(b)  To  develop  in  the  mind  of  the  students  the  educational  value  of 
drawing. 

(c)  To  produce  in  the  student,  to  a  limited  degree  at  least,  the  cul- 
tural results  of  knowledge  and  training  in  art  appreciation. 


282  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  scope  of  the  work  includes  the  following  divisions: 

(a)  The  teaching  of  art  principles,  wherein  instruction  is  given  in 
the  discovery  and  appreciation  of  the  principles  of  perspective  which 
govern  the  appearance  of  objects,  both  natural  and  manufactured;  the 
principles  of  composition  and  design,  such  as  rhythm,  balance,  proportion, 
harmony  and  subordination ;  and  the  principles  of  mechanical  drawing 
governing  the  accurate  rendering  of  construction  drawings,  both  free- 
hand and  instrumental. 

(b)  Technically,  the  scope  of  the  work  is  sufficiently  broad  to  give 
facility  in  the  handling  of  different  mediums  used  in  teaching  drawing, 
namely :  chalk,  charcoal,  water  color,  lead  pencil  and  ink. 

(c)  ^Methods  that  are  in  accordance  with  the  findings  of  psycho- 
logical and  pedagogical  science  are  the  only  ones  that  normal  students  are 
taught  to  employ.  They  are  led  to  see  the  relation  of  sense  impression  to 
manual  expression ;  they  are  led  to  see  also  how  interest  in  one  influences 
the  other,  how  content  acts  upon  form,  and  how  form  reacts  upon  content. 
Thus  ideas  otherwise  vague  and  unreal  are  strengthened  and  reinforced. 
They  are  taught  to  recognize  the  importance  of  manual  expression  as  the 
dominant  factor  in  the  new  education. 

The  plan  of  work  in  drawing  in  normal  schools  is  such  as  to  fulfill 
the  purpose  and  scope  above  mentioned.  As  the  course  of  study  in  nearly 
every  normal  school  is  planned  by  the  head  of  the  department  of  drawing, 
with  the  approval  of  the  president  of  the  school,  there  necessarily  follows 
quite  a  variety  of  courses,  as  shown  by  the  outlines  given  in  the  cata- 
logues and  bulletins  of  the  different  normal  schools.  The  differences' 
arise  mainly  from  dift'erent  conditions  in  the  State,  city  or  school,  and 
upon  the  length  of  time  devoted  to  the  subject.  These  differences  are 
found  upon  careful  examination  to  be  on  minor  points. 

The  time  devoted  to  drawing  in  the  different  normal  schools  of  the 
country  varies  from  a  course  of  twenty  weeks  of  three  and  one-half  hours 
per  week  to  a  course  of  two  years,  thirty  or  forty  weeks  each  year.  There 
are  schools  that  offer  electives,  such  as  additional  German  or  Latin  in 
the  place  of  the  drawing  course  of  twenty  weeks.  There  are  other  schools 
that  offer  electives  in  favor  of  drawing,  and  still  others  that  offer  a  special 
course  in  drawing  of  one  year  additional  work,  thereby  preparing  students 
not  only  to  teach  drawing,  but  also  to  supervise  the  teaching  of  drawing 
in  towns  and  cities  where  supervisors  of  drawing  are  employed. 

\ 


JOINERY  AND   APPLIED   DESIGN,   HIGH   SCHOOL,   NEWARK,   N.   J. 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  NORMAL  SCHOOLS.  285 

SUBJECTS   TAUGHT. 

The  subjects  taught  under  the  head  of  drawing  in  the  majority  if 
not  all  of  the  normal  schools  in  the  United  States  are  as  follows : 

A.  Object  Drazinng: 

(a)  Nature  forms,  grasses,  flowers,  plants,  trees,  etc. 

(b)  Groups  of  still  life,  with  fruits  and  vegetables. 

(c)  Figure,  posed. 

(d)  Animals  and  birds. 

(e)  Buildings  and  other  rectangular  objects. 

(f)  Landscapes. 

(g)  Casts. 

Mediums  used  for  the  representation  of  the  above  are  chalk,  charcoal, 
brush  and  ink,  water  color,  pencil,  crayon,  and  pen  and  ink. 

B.  Design: 

(a)  Principles  of  design,  rhythm,  balance,  proportion,  subordina- 

tion and  harmony. 

(b)  Source  and  selection  of  motives  or  units  of  design. 

(c)  Color  in  design. 

(d)  Application   of   decorative   design   to   objects   constructed   in 

class  and  out  of  class  periods. 
Mediums  used  are  same  as  for  object  drawing,  with  the  addition  of 
dyes,  stains,  etc.,  used  in  applying  designs. 

C.  Illustrative  Draxi'ing: 

(a)  Purpose  and  scope. 

(b)  Relation  to  other  branches  of  study. 
Mediums  same  as  in  object  drawing. 

D.  Constructive  Draiving: 

(a)  Views  and  developments. 

(b)  Working  drawings  and  patterns. 

(c)  Conventions. 

E.  Form  Study  and  Constructive  Work: 

(a)  Clay  modeling. 

(b)  Pottery. 

(c)  Paper  cutting  and  pasting,  used  also  in  connection  with  object 

drawing,  design  and  illustration. 

(d)  Weaving  and  basketry. 


286  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

(e)   Work  in  wood  and  metal  is  sometimes  given  in  connection 
with  the  work  in  drawing  and  by  the  same  teacher. 
F.  Professional  IV ark: 

(a)  Opportunity  ia  offered  the  student  for  a  course  of  eight  or  ten 
weeks'  study  of  psychology  with  the  teacher  of  that  branch,  before  he  is 
admitted  to  a  class  in  professional  drawing.  He  is  also  given  a  course 
of  eight  or  ten  weeks  in  the  theory  and  art  of  teaching,  together  with 
observation  in  the  Training  Department  before  the  professional  aspect  of 
work  in  drawing  is  taken  up.  With  such  preparation  the  students  in 
normal  schools  come  to  their  teacher  of  drawing,  ready  to  make  a  careful 
study  of  drawing  and  the  other  manual  arts,  basing  their  generalizations 
upon  their  previous  psychological  and  pedagogical  findings. 

(b)  Methods  and  plans  for  teaching  different  phases  of  drawing 
naturally  follow  the  work  indicated  above.  Methods  are  given  to  the 
class  accompanied  by  ample  illustrations  from  the  Training  Depart- 
ment, plans  for  teaching  the  various  subjects  are  worked  out  in  class,  and 
students  are  also  required  to  prepare  original  plans  "and  read  them  in 
class  for  criticism  involving  approval  and  correction.  This  theoretical 
work  is  made  real  and  interesting,  and  when  immediately  followed  by 
practice  teaching  in  the  Training  Department,  its  value  is  more  fully 
realized. 

(c)  There  are  many  different  arrangements  in  connection  with  the 
practice  teaching.  One  of  the  most  successful  plans  known  to  the  writer 
is  the  following:  A  class  or  group  of  children  is  given  to  the  student 
teacher  for  a  period  of  eight  or  ten  weeks,  three  or  five  lesson  periods 
of  from  twenty-five  to  forty-five  minutes  a  week.  Before  taking  charge 
of  the  class  the  student  teacher  is  given  a  carefully  written  report  of  the 
class  work  done  under  the  previous  teacher  during  the  preceding  eight  or 
ten  weeks.  He  is  also  given  a  brief  plan  of  the  work  to  be  taken  up, 
an  outline  of  five  or  six  lessons  in  the  subject  to  be  taught,  and  a  detailed 
daily  plan  for  the  first  one  or  two  lessons.  In  every  day's  plan  there  are 
the  following  points  to  be  considered,  namely :  Purpose  of  the  lesson  or 
exercise ;  what  the  children  must  know  and  do  in  order  to  realize  this 
purpose;  what  they  already  know  or  can  do;  what  remains  to  be  taught; 
and  finally,  how  these  new  points  are  to  be  taught. 

These  plans  are  accompanied  by  graphic  illustrations,  for  it  has  been 
found  necessary  to  have  the  student  teacher  work  out  the  problem  himself, 


/'iWijt 


^ 


""T^fL^ ' 


PIERCED   LEATHER   AND    METAL,    HIGH    SCHOOL,   SPRINGFIELD,    MASS. 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  NORMAL  SCHOOLS.  289 

from  the  standpoint  of  the  child.  To  be  able  to  solve  the  problem  as  an 
adult  is  not  sufficient.  It  sometimes  happens  that  students  whose  tech- 
nique is  exceptionally  good  have  little  aptitude  for  teaching  drawing.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  sometimes  happens  that  a  student  possessed  of  great 
teaching  ability  has  little  power  technically  with  brush  or  pencil,  and 
because  the  subject  has  been  difficult  for  him  to  master,  he  has  more 
patience  and  skill  in  teaching  the  subject  to  others.  Hence  it  is  not  infre- 
quent in  a  normal  school  that  such  students  ask  for  practice  classes  in 
drawing,  that  they  may  obtain  the  experience  that  shall  make  them  feel 
well  prepared,  when  they  take  charge  of  a  school  in  which  drawing  is 
one  of  the  branches  to  be  taught. 

The  work  done  by  a  practice  student  with  a  class  of  children  in  the 
Training  Department  is  subject  to  the  criticism  of  the  head  of  the  depart- 
ment of  drawing.  These  criticisms  aim  to  be  constructive  and  to  produce 
good  results  for  both  the  student  teacher  and  pupils  under  his  care.  The 
criticism  is  usually  written  during  the  visit  of  the  critic  teacher  and 
afterward  talked  over  with  the  student,  so  as  to  make  the  points  clear  and 
helpful.  This  method  of  criticism  leaves  the  student  teacher  free  and 
uninterrupted  during  the  class  period,  and  also  prevents  his  unnecessary 
humiliation  in  the  presence  of  his  pupils. 

(d)  Art  appreciation  is  cultivated  by  various  means,  one  of  the 
most  common  and  fruitful  being  a  course  of  study  and  reading  along 
historical  lines  of  art  and  art  industries.  As  has  been  already  stated, 
many  normal  schools  are  furnished  with  a  stereopticon,  and  courses  of 
lectures  are  given  by  the  teacher  of  drawing.  Collections  of  pictures  are 
made  and  used  to  illustrate  different  periods  of  art  development.  The 
time  of  one  lesson  period  a  week  through  the  course  is  frequently  devoted 
to  such  phases  of  art  study.  If  the  school  is  in  a  city  where  an  art 
museum  may  be  visited,  the  students  have  ample  opportunity  for  study 
and  research. 

(e)  Relation  of  art  to  various  industries,  ancient  and  mo<lern,  may 
be  studied  to  great  advantage.  This  is  perhaps  one  of  the  most  interesting 
phases  of  drawing  in  normal  schools  at  the  present  time.  The  growth 
and  development  of  this  spirit  marks  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  art 
education  throughout  the  country.  The  relations  between  art  and 
industrv,  and  the  study  of  social  conditions  and  art  utilization,  in  the 
application  of  decorative  design  to  objects  constructed,  are  being  studied 


290  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

in  normal  schools  as  never  before.  In  illustration  of  this,  reference  may 
be  made  to  the  subject  of  weaving  and  the  study  of  textiles  in  general. 
Small  hand  looms  are  in  use  by  school  children  all  over  the  country,  and 
in  some  normal  schools  large  looms  are  used.  These  large  looms  may  be 
made  by  the  older  boys  in  the  manual  training  classes,  while  the  small 
ones  are  made  by  the  younger  children.  In  connection  with  the  weaving 
there  is  dyeing  and  other  preparation  of  material  to  be  done.  In  addition, 
designs  are  made  as  decorations  for  the  articles  woven.  If  the  school  is 
located  in  a  city  where  the  students  have  access  to  an  art  museum,  a  study 
of  textiles  is  assigned  as  part  of  the  museum  work. 

(f)  Special  features  of  art  instruction  have  been  undertaken  by  differ- 
ent normal  schools,  as  the  development  of  circulating  pictures.  In  the  State 
l\^ormal  School  at  Stevens  Point,  Wis.,  a  collection  of  mounted  pictures 
was  sent  to  various  country  teachers.  Each  picture  could  be  drawn  out  the 
■same  as  a  library  book,  carried  home  and  retained  a  week,  and  then 
•exchanged  for  a  new  one.  This  work  was  carried  on  during  the  winter 
in  many  of  the  country  districts  surrounding  the  town  in  which  the  nor- 
mal school  was  located.  The  people  would  often  send  ten  or  twelve  miles 
to  procure  a  picture.  Books  were  sent  out  in  like  manner;  but  many 
•of  the  people  were  foreigners  and  could  not  read  English,  and  the  experi- 
ment was  not  so  successful.  One  old  man  said:  "I  no  read  books,  but 
I  read  pictures."  The  work  grew  until  it  was  taken  up  by  the  State 
Federation  of  Women's  Clubs  and  later  by  the  State  Library  Association. 

Under  the  auspices  of  the  Art  Department  of  the  State  Normal 
School,  Oshkosh,  Wisconsin,  another  experiment  was  tried,  resulting  in 
the  organization  of  a  Students'  Art  Loan  Club.  A  collection  of  framed 
pictures  was  made — pictures  framed  for  home  decoration,  not  for  school 
decoration.  This  collection  was  placed  on  exhibition,  and  each  member 
of  the  drawing  classes  was  allowed  to  choose  one  picture,  to  be  taken  to 
his  or  her  private  room  and  kept  there  for  a  period  of  ten  weeks.  As 
there  are  forty  weeks  in  the  school  year,  this  gave  each  member  of  the 
club  the  privilege  of  having  four  pictures  during  the  year. 

FUTURE  OF  DRAWING  IN   NORMAL  SCHOOLS. 

The  rise  of  the  educational  movement  for  industrial  art  training  has 
resulted,  in  recent  years,  in  the  introduction  into  our  public  schools  of 
many  art  crafts,  such  as  weaving,  basketry,  pottery  and  work  in  leather. 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  NORMAL  SCHOOLS.  293 

wood  and  metal.  The  work  in  nornial  schools  coming  under  the  head  of 
drawing  has  thus  been  greatly  increased.  The  teacher  of  drawing  has 
found  it  necessary  to  teach  the  elements  of  nearly  all  of  the  subjects  above 
mentioned.  This  has  brought  about  an  overcrowding  of  the  course  of 
study.  In  many  schools  readjustment  is  necessary  in  order  to  give  suffi- 
cient time  for  making  further  connection  with  and  closer  relation  to  these 
other  manual  arts,  now  considered  to  be  school  subjects. 

The  future  of  art  education  in  normal  schools  is  big  with  promise  of 
growth  and  achievement.  If,  however,  the  art  training  given  in  the  nor- 
mal schools  of  the  country  is  to  progress  in  the  future  as  it  has  in  the 
past,  more  and  better  equipment  must  be  afforded.  The  greatest  neces- 
sity is  the  establishment  of  an  art  museum  in  or  near  each  normal  school 
that  students  may  be  able  to  study  fine  examples  of  art  and  art  industry, 
and  so  have  their  taste  cuhivated  and  their  visual  images  increased  and 
refined.  This  has  been  done  in  one  normal  school  in  our  sister  country, 
Canada.  James  L.  Hughes,  Chief  Inspector  of  Schools,  Toronto,  says 
of  this  art  museum : 

"The  collection  of  pictures  and  other  art  material  in  connection  with 
the  Normal  School  of  Toronto  was  founded  by  Dr.  Edgerton  Ryerson  in 
185 1.  He  was  General  Superintendent  of  Schools  in  Toronto  at  the  time. 
I  quite  agree  with  you  that  it  is  an  important  matter  for  consideration 
by  those  who  have  the  training  of  teachers  at  heart." 

Better  and  more  thoroughly  trained  teachers  of  drawing  are  needed 
in  many  schools.  Young  men  and  women  preparing  to  teach  find  it  neces- 
sary for  pecuniary  reasons  to  begin  their  work  at  once  after  graduation. 
Unless  they  are  graduated  from  a  school  giving  a  special  course  in  ad- 
vanced drawing  for  students  intending  to  teach  and  sujDervise  drawing, 
they  find  themselves  rather  poorly  equipped.  They  cannot  afford  to  take 
further  study  at  a  normal  art  school,  anrl  feel  obliged  to  undertake  the 
work,  conscious  of  their  meager  preparation.  If  a  course  in  a  normal 
art  school  could  be  offered  as  a  scholarship,  to  students  showing  special 
aptitude  for  teaching  drawing  during  their  course  in  State  and  city  nor- 
mal schools,  many  gifted  young  men  and  women  would  be  furnished  with 
the  means  to  properly  fit  themselves  for  the  work  they  often  try  to  do 
without  proper  preparation.  It  is  hoped  that  some  such  plan  as  this  may 
be  adopted  by  normal  art  schools.  The  reflex  benefit  of  such  a  course  of 
training  would  be  great,  upon  art  development  throughout  the  country. 


294  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

In  our  normal  schools  at  the  present  time  students  of  many  different 
nationalities  are  found.  Many  of  these  students  are  of  foreign  parent- 
age, yet  they  show  strong  race  tendencies,  and  there  is  going  on  all  the 
time  such  a  blending  of  race  characteristics  that  a  new  and  different  phase 
of  American  nationality  is  being  formed.  Will  not  this  amalgamation  of 
races  have  a  distinctive  influence  upon  the  development  of  art  education  in 
this  country  ?  Was  it  not  the  union  of  races  in  Greece  when  the  Dorians 
from  the  north  mingled  with  the  lonians  of  the  south  that  gave  us  the 
matchless  art  of  the  Phidian  age?  Was  it  not  the  amalgamation  of  the 
Italian  tribes  with  those  of  northern  countries,  bringing  so  many  different 
temperaments  into  one  national  growth,  that  produced  the  versatile  Italian 
of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries,  that  gave  us  not  only  the  best  art 
and  literature,  but  gave  us  also  the  discoverer  and  the  inventor?  Here 
in  the  United  States  of  America  are  not  the  conditions  similar  ?  We  have 
a  multitude  of  races  striving  as  a  unit  to  bring  about  the  best  educational 
development.  There  is,  in  fact,  no  subject  in  this  great  nation  upon 
which  there  exists  so  much  unanimity  of  opinion  as  upon  educational 
topics ;  and  in  no  department  of  education  is  there  greater  evidence  of 
intelligent  activity  than  in  that  of  art  teaching.  There  is  among  art  edu- 
cators in  normal  schools  a  striving  for  simplicity  and  serenity,  the  "true 
grace  and  serenity  of  culture."  This  gives  ground  for  the  hope  that  in 
the  future  drawing  in  normal  schools  will  show  continued  progress  and 
development  along  the  highest  lines  of  art  education. 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  COLLEGES. 

By  William  Woodward. 

THE  United  States  Bureau  of  Education  defines  a  college  as :  "An 
institution  chartered  by  the  State  in  which  it  is  located,  and  author- 
ized to  confer  academic  degrees,  and  which  in  good  faith  lives  up  to  the 
terms  of  its  charter."  To  be  ranked  as  a  college  by  the  Carnegie  Founda- 
tion an  institution  must  have  "at  least  six  professors  giving  their  entire 
time  to  college  and  university  work,  a  course  of  four  full  years  in  liljeral 
arts  and  sciences,  and  should  require  for  admission  not  less  than  the  usual 
four  years  of  academic  or  high  school  preparation,  or  its  equivalent,  in  ad- 
dition to  the  preacademic  or  grammar  school  studies.  It  must  also  have 
a  productive  endowment  fund  of  not  less  than  $200,000." 

The  infinite  variety  among  the  institutions  in  the  United  States  of 
America,  giving  instruction  in  drawing  and  other  forms  of  art,  makes  it 
difficult  to  indicate  the  scope  of  this  teaching  in  them."  Studio  instruc- 
tion given  in  colleges  and  universities  does  not  differ  from  that  given  in 
art.  normal  schools  and  institutes,  and  a  survey  of  the  whole  field  shows 
a  definite  approach  of  art  interests  among  colleges  and  other  institutions. 
While  the  causes  which  have  operated  to  bring  this  about  are  not  few,  the 
principal  seems  to  be,  that  the  leaders  of  the  college  teaching  force  have 
been  very  largely  educated  outside  of  colleges,  and  have  shown  breadth  and 
ability  sufficient  to  fit  their  w-ork  to  the  best  interests  of  all.  Much  con- 
fusion has  prevailed  at  the  point  of  contact  between  secondary  schools  and 
colleges,  but  great  good  is  expected  to  come  from  the  writings  and  dis- 
cussions incident  upon  the  International  Association. 

The  attitude  of  colleges  and  universities  toward  secondary  schools 
is  most  friendly  and  intimate ;  the  former  constantly  encourage  the  latter 
and  furnish  them  with  commencement  speakers.    They  also  usually  pub- 

'In  order  to  get  information  at  first  hand,  the  writer  addressed  a  printed  form  to  every 
college  and  university  in  the  United  States  Government  list  of  1906.  Both  white  and  colored 
colleges  were  included,  but  the  information  received  from  the  latter  was  so  fragmentary  as  not 
to  be  available  for  this  chapter.  The  information  was  returned  by  a  comparatively  small  number 
of  the  former,  the  table  of  statistics  containing  the  names  of  typical  institutions,  both  large  and 
small. 


296  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

lish  a  list  of  secondary  schools  that  have  prepared  students  for  college 
entrance.  If  drawing  has  not  often  been  found  in  the  list  of  required 
subjects,  it  is  because  of  distrust  of  its  merits.  When  the  latter  become 
more  widely  known,  drawing  will  be  required  generally  for  college 
entrance. 

COLLEGE   ENTRANCE   REQUIREMENTS   IN   DRAWING. 

The  requirements  for  entrance  to  courses  leading  to  Bachelor  of  Arts 
and  Bachelor  of  Science  are  not  always  the  same  as  those  leading  to 
technical  degrees.  The  differences  are  likely  to  increase.  The  schools  of 
applied  science,  engineering,  architecture,  painting  and  design,  to  men- 
tion those  that  use  drawing  as  a  fundamental  language,  would  (if  they 
were  in  a  position  to  do  so)  be  glad  to  demand  several  years  of  drawing 
and  art  training,  as  they  demand  English,  history  and  mathematics.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  they  are  now  doing  this  as  far  as  they  can. 

In  the  case  of  Harvard  University,  Massachusetts  (established  in 
1636),  the  oldest  of  our  universities,  a  considerable  proficiency  in  draw- 
ing is  demanded  for  entrance  to  full  professional  work  in  architecture. 
This  department,  one  of  the  most  successful  and  flourishing  in  this  coun- 
try, has  announced  that  at  no  distant  day  it  will  ask  for  the  presentation 
of  a  college  degree  to  enter  the  full  work  in  architecture,  which  w'ill  be 
offered  only  in  the  graduate  school  of  applied  science.  The  elements  of 
drawing  and  architecture  must  be  acquired  in  some  college  below. 

Columbia  University,  New  York  City  (established  in  1754),  asks  a 
student  to  finish  his  freshman  and  sophomore  years  in  general  studies, 
including  the  elements  of  drawing  (which  comprise  all  asked  for  in 
chemistry,  physics,  pure  mathematics,  the  usual  languages,  general 
history,  etc.),  before  beginning  his  professional  work  in  architecture. 
Cornell  University,  New  York  (established  in  1868),  has  raised  the 
requirements  to  enter  work  in  architecture. 

Some  university  departments  of  painting,  giving  degrees  for  that 
work  mainly,  require  students  to  pass  a  considerable  examination  in  draw- 
ing on  entrance,  but  they  do  not  require  the  usual  proficiency  in  mathe- 
matics or  science.  The  best  known,  and  probably  the  most  exacting 
technical  institution  in  this  country,  The  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology,  Boston  (established  in  1862),  does  not  require  any  drawing 
for  entrance.    It  is,  however,  manifestly  of  great  advantage  to  be  prepared 


J 


JUN I OR^ 


STENCIL    PRINTS,     TLNIOR   CLASS^    TEACHERS     COLLEGE,    NEW    YORK,    N.    Y. 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  COLLEGES.  299 

in  drawing  to  enter  the  courses  in  architecture.  Probably  the  greater 
portion  of  its  students  are  so  prepared,  as  instruction  in  drawing  is  quite 
general  within  the  State,  which  is  noted  for  its  liberaUty  in  this  direction. 

DRAWING  REQUIRED  FOR  FRESHMAN    ENTRANCE. 

The  University  of  CaHfornia,  at  Berkeley  (established  in  1869),  is 
one  of  the  leaders  in  the  matter  of  requiring  drawing  for  entrance,  de- 
manding one  unit  each,  in  free-hand  and  mechanical  drawing,  out  of  a 
total  of  fourteen  and  one-half  units,  for  admission  to  its  courses  in  me- 
chanics, mining,  civil  engineering  and  chemistry.  In  the  course  in  archi- 
tecture, it  does  not  seem  quite  so  consistent,  as  the  subjects  mentioned 
are  advised  only,  but  the  reason  may  be  found  in  the  fact  that  the  course 
in  architecture  is  new,  and  under  a  different  college  organization. 

The  University  of  North  Dakota  (established  in  1883)  has  taken  a 
position  requiring  drawing  and  music  (one-half  course  each)  for  entrance 
to  its  College  of  Liberal  Arts,  Teachers'  College,  College  of  Mining 
Engineering,  and  College  of  Mechanical  and  Electrical  Engineering.  In 
its  College  of  Medicine  these  subjects  may  be  offered  as  one-half  course 
each,  in  a  total  of  sixteen  courses. 

Columbia  University  requires  free-hand  drawing  one  unit,  out  of  a 
total  of  sixteen,  for  admission  to  its  School  of  Mines,  Chemistry  and 
Engineering;  and  for  admission  to  its  School  of  Architecture,  free-hand 
drawing,  orders  of  architecture,  elementary  projections,  shades  and 
shadows  and  rendering  in  India  ink  and  colors. 

The  University  of  Syracuse,  Syracuse,  N.  Y.  (established  in  1871), 
requires  free-hand  drawing  for  entrance  to  its  degree  course  in  painting, 
and  both  mechanical  and  free-hand  drawing  for  entrance  to  its  degree 
course  in  architecture. 

DRAWING    CREDITED  ON    ENTRANCE   TO   FRESHMAN    YEAR. 

However  little  drawing  may  be  required  on  entrance  to  freshman 
work,  it  is  now  becoming  quite  generally  credited  in  the  progressive  insti- 
tutions as  one  unit  each  of  free-hand  and  mechanical  drawing  of  a  total  of 
fourteen,  fifteen  or  sixteen  units.  The  amount  of  drawing  and  manual 
training  now  credited  varies  greatly ;  for  instance,  Washington  Uni- 
versity, St.  Louis,  allows  one  unit  in  drawing  of  a  total  of  fifteen  to  be 
offered,  but  no  manual  training,  although  Dean  Woodward  of  the  under- 


30O  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

graduate  department  is  widely  known  as  the  promoter  of  the  manual 
training  school,  in  the  university  organization.  However,  graduates  from 
that  and  the  Kansas  City  Manual  Training  School  are  admitted  to  the 
college  on  certificate  without  examination. 

Tulane  University  of  Louisiana,  New  Orleans,  allows  three  units 
of  a  total  of  fifteen,  to  be  offered  from  a  group  of  subjects  containing 
free-hand  drawing,  one  unit ;  mechanical  drawing,  one-half  unit ;  wood- 
working, one-half  unit;  forge  work,  one-half  unit;  and  machine  tool 
practice,  one  unit.  The  Leland  Stanford,  Jr.,  University,  California 
(established  in  1891),  is  even  more  liberal  towards  these  subjects.  Co- 
lumbia, New  York,  allows  one  unit  each  of  drawing  and  shop  work,  to 
be  offered  out  of  a  total  of  fifteen  units  for  entrance.  These  few  exam- 
ples will  serve  as  types  of  a  large  number  of  colleges. 

Harvard  University  issues  a  pamphlet  of  "Outlines  of  requirements 
in  drawing,  intended  for  use  in  preparing  students  for  Harvard  College 
and  the  Lawrence  Scientific  School."  One  or  more  of  three  courses  in 
drawing  may  be  offered  as  part  of  the  entrance  requirements  for  the 
Lawrence  Scientific  School.  These  courses  are :  free-hand  drawing, 
projections,  architectural  drawing. 

Princeton  University,  New  Jersey  (established  in  1746),  which  does 
not  credit  any  drawing  or  shopwork  on  entrance,  adds  in  a  note  concern- 
ing civil  engineering,  that  "It  is  recommended  that  all  candidates  should 
receive  instruction  in  free-hand  drawing  before  entrance." 

Tulane  University  of  Louisiana,  notes  "that  students  are  recom- 
mended to  offer  both  free-hand  and  mechanical  drawing  for  entrance  to 
courses  in  science,  engineering,  architecture  and  architectural  engineering, 
and  are  recommended  to  offer  shopwork,  for  entrance  to  the  courses  in 
architecture  and  architectural  engineering."  The  University  intends  at  an 
early  date  to  require  drawing  to  be  offered  for  entrance  to  these  courses. 

In  treating  the  subject  of  drawing  and  other  forms  of  art  instruction, 
in  colleges  and  universities,  perhaps  the  most  widely  known  development 
will  be  found  in  schools  and  departments  of  architecture,  which  have  re- 
cently shown  great  vigor  and  promise.  Architecture  is  a  branch  of  the 
fine  arts  which  has  developed  directly  under  university  organization. 
This,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  start  in  drawing  was  made  under  the 
auspices  of  the  faculties  of  science,  changing  to  a  form  of  engineering, 


LINE  COMPOSITION,  JUNIOR  CLASS,  TEACHERS    COLLEGE.  NEW  YORK,   N.   Y. 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  COLLEGES. 


303 


and  only  within  a  few  years  winning  a  place  for  itself  as  a  worthy  sister 
of  painting  and  music  in  the  college  faculties  of  Fine  Arts. 

Sculpture  has  never  been  established  as  a  school  or  department  in 
American  universities.  There  probably  is  not  a  single  professor  of 
sculpture  in  our  colleges. 

It  may  not  be  too  much  to  say  that  in  the  subject  of  architecture,  we 
Jiave  good  evidence  that  American  universities  may  be  expected  to  achieve 
the  highest  rank.  But  other  institutions  have  led  the  way  in  educating 
artists  and  art  teachers.  In  like  manner  the  engineering  colleges  have 
•developed  mechanical  drawing,  but  not  to  the  increasing  extent  shown  in 
schools  of  architecture,  as  the  pressure  to  graduate  in  four  years  with  full 
professional  equipment  has  greatly  limited  draftmanship,  and  the  use 
of  photography  for  finished  illustrations  has  superseded  shaded  drawings. 

DEGREES   IN    ART   OR  ARCHITECTURE. 

As  each  school  of  architecture  is  a  centre  of  art  influence,  it  is  well 
to  note  those  colleges  in  the  order  of  establishment  of  full  degree  courses. 

Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  Boston,  Department  of 
Architecture,  established  in  1866;  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  Col- 
lege of  Architecture,  established  in  1870;  University  of  Illinois,  Urbana, 
Illinois,  Department  of  Architecture,  established  in  1873 ;  Columbia  Uni- 
versity, New  York  City,  School  of  Architecture,  established  in  1881 ; 
.Syracuse  University,  Syracuse,  New  York,  School  of  Architecture,  estab- 
lished in  1889;  University  of  Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania, 
School  of  Architecture,  established  in  1890;  Armour  Institute,  Chicago, 
Illinois,  Course  in  Architecture,  established  in  1893 ;  Harvard  University, 
Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  Department  of  Architecture,  established  in 
1894;  Washington  University,  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  School  of  Architec- 
ture, established  in  1902;  George  Washington  University,  Washington, 
District  of  Columbia,  Division  of  Architecture,  established  in  1903;  Uni- 
versity of  California,  Berkeley,  California,  School  of  Architecture,  estab- 
lished in  1903 ;  University  of  Michigan,  Ann  Abor,  Michigan,  Department 
of  Architecture,  established  in  1906;  Tulane  University  of  Louisiana,  New 
Orleans,  Louisiana,  Course  in  Architecture,  established  in  1907. 

The  universities  that  have  organized  instruction  in  art  under  a  sep- 
arate faculty,  giving  degrees,  are : 

Yale,  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  established  in   1701,  School  of  the 


304  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Fine  Arts  giving  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Fine  Arts,  established  in  1864; 
offers  three  years  of  advanced  work,  open  to  both  sexes. 

Syracuse  University,  Syracuse,  New  York,  established  in  1871.  Col- 
lege of  Fine  Arts,  established  in  1873 ;  four  year  course,  giving  degree 
of  Bachelor  of  Painting  (B.  P.),  and  also  a  four  year  course  giving  the 
degree  of  Bachelor  of  Architecture  (B.  Ar.).  There  is  also  a  three  year 
course  in  Normal  Art,  established  in  1890,  and  a  two  year  design  course, 
established  in  1890.  This  faculty  gives  degrees  in  Music  and  Belles 
Lettres.    Open  to  both  sexes. 

In  the  University  of  Kansas,  Lawrence,  Kansas,  established  in  1866, 
the  School  of  Fine  Arts  has  a  four  year  course  leading  to  the  degree  of 
Bachelor  of  Painting  (B.  P.)  and  a  course  giving  a  degree  in  Music. 
This  school  has  a  summer  session.  Like  State  institutions  generally,  the 
work  is  open  to  both  sexes,  with  a  great  majority  of  women  students. 

Columbia  University,  New  York,  N.  Y.,  established  in  1906  a  faculty 
of  Fine  Arts  comprising  the  School  of  Architecture,  the  School  of  Music 
and  the  School  of  Design.  The  new  arrangements  include  affiliation  with 
the  National  Academy  of  Design,  now  located  near  the  University  on 
Morningside  Heights,  and  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art  in  Central 
Park.  The  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Architecture  is  given  for  full  profes- 
sional work  which  may  largely  be  done  at  night,  as  well  as  in  the  day 
ateliers,  so  that  applicants  for  advanced  standing  may  still  retain  paid  em- 
ployment in  architectural  work  if  they  so  desire.  The  degree  of  Bachelor 
of  Design  is  promised  for  the  future.  In  the  meantime  a  certificate  of 
proficiency  is  awarded. 

Several  university  departments  of  painting  giving  degrees  for  that 
work,  require  students  to  pass  a  considerable  examination  in  drawing  for 
entrance,  but  they  do  not  require  the  usual  proficiency  in  mathematics  or 
science.  Nevvxomb  College,  Tulane  University,  New  Orleans,  Louisiana, 
is  considering  giving  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Design. 

One  of  the  most  important  of  the  older  schools  of  art  is  the  St.  Louis 
School  of  Fine  Arts  of  Washington  University,  St.  Louis,  established  in 
1879.  This  school  is  fortunate  in  its  director,  Halsey  C.  Ives,  who 
has  given  it  an  international  reputation  by  his  success  in  directing  the  art 
departments  of  two  international  expositions,  and  who  recently  succeeded 
in  inducing  the  city  of  St.  Louis  to  vote  a  tax  for  the  support  of  the  school 
and  museum,  which  yields  over  ^e  hundred  thousand  dollars  per  year. 


EMBROIDERY,    NEWCOMB    COLLEGE,    XEW    ORLEANS,    LA. 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  COLLEGES.  307 

This  gives  it  prominence  among  university  art  schools.    It  is  open  to  both 
sexes. 

Another  art  school  under  college  organization  is  in  the  H.  Sophie 
Newcomb  Memorial  College  for  women  in  Tulane  University  of  Louisi- 
ana, New  Orleans.  This  school  has  developed  the  manufacture  of  art 
pottery  among  other  art-crafts  and  has  been  awarded  a  number  of  medals 
in  world  competitions.  Its  special  feature  is  the  originality  and  artistic 
merit  of  the  decoration  done  entirely  by  the  young  women  attending 
the  school. 

DRAWING  REQUIRED  IN  COLLEGE  DECREE  COURSES. 

Comparatively  little  drawing  is  ever  required  after  entrance  to  the 
college  work,  outside  of  technical  departments,  or  courses,  where  it  at  once 
becomes  the  most  important  branch  and  the  language  universally  used 
over  the  world.  A  course  is  usually  required  in  the  freshman  year,  of 
students  studying  for  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science,  and  the  new 
departments  of  household  economics,  etc.,  as  in  the  case  of  Simmons 
College,  Boston,  Massachusetts,  established  in  1902. 

Johns  Hopkins  University,  Baltimore,  Maryland,  established  in 
1876,  requires  drawing  for  the  degree  of  A.  B.  and  maintains  an  associate 
professor  of  art  in  its  relation  to  medicine. 

ELECTIVE  ART   WORK. 

The  usual  arrangement  by  which  students  in  college  may  study  art 
is  as  an  elective  branch  either  for  a  degree  or  as  a  special  study.  The 
amount  allowed  to  be  taken  for  a  degree  varies  widely. 

Leland  Stanford  University  allows  a  student  to  elect  art  as  a  major 
study  occupying  one-third  of  his  time  throughout  the  four  years'  course 
for  an  A.  B.  degree.  The  University  of  Cincinnati.  Ohio,  established  in 
1870,  allows  twelve  points  in  art  out  of  a  total  of  one  hundred  and 
twenty-four. 

Harvard  University  is  especially  rich  in  electives  in  art  and  architec- 
ture in  the  A.  B.  course.  The  university  would  prefer  a  scheme  of  art 
studies  giving  a  degree  of  A.  B.  to  precede  its  graduate  course  in  archi- 
tecture. The  latter  course  would  in  that  way  be  shortened.  The  same 
is  practically  true  of  Columbia  and  is  likely  to  become  the  most  approved 
method,  as  the  American  Institute  of  Architects  is  on  record  as  distinctly 
favoring  this  course. 


3o8  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

In  Tulane  University  a  student  may,  in  the  junior  and  senior  years 
of  the  A.  B.  course,  make  election  of  any  study  offered,  including  en- 
gineering, architecture,  law  and  medicine,  within  certain  limits. 

ART    SCHOOLS   AFFILIATED   WITH    COLLEGES. 

The  university  of  the  present  day  in  this  country  seeks  usually  to 
co-operate  with  a  neighboring  art  school  in  more  or  less  close  affiliation. 
The  University  of  California  has  tlie  San  Francisco  Institute  of  Art  in 
San  Francisco  as  one  of  its  affiliated  colleges.  Brow^n  University,  Provi- 
dence, Rhode  Island,  established  in  1764,  has  an  arrangement  with  the 
Rhode  Island  School  of  Design  in  the  same  city,  by  which  students  of  each 
may  take  courses  in  the  other. 

^^'estern  Reserve  University,  Cleveland,  Ohio,  established  in  1826, 
reports  that  it  has  a  '"certain  loose  affiliation  by  which,  in  the  college  for 
women,  we  give  certain  credit  for  work  done  in  the  Cleveland  School  of 
Art.  In  Adelbert  College  (Cleveland,  Ohio),  we  have  courses  in  draw- 
ing and  other  drafting  for  men  w^ho  are  taking  the  engineers'  work  in  a 
combination  course  between  Adelbert  College  and  Case  School  of  Ap- 
plied Science." 

The  University  of  Cincinnati  reports  that  "by  arrangement  with 
the  Cincinnati  Art  School  credit  not  more  than  twelve  points  in  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty-four  may  be  there  earned  toward  the  degree  of  Bachelor 
of  Arts."  The  Armour  Institute,  Chicago,  established  in  1892,  has  direct 
arrangement  with  the  Chicago  Art  Institute,  where  art  and  architecture 
are  associated  with  the  scientific  instruction  received  at  Armour. 

Washington  University,  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  has  long  had  its  own 
art  school  and  museum,  as  has  Yale,  and  also  Columbia,  which  is  affili- 
ated with  the  National  Academy  of  Design.  In  these  cases  the  endow- 
ments and  government  of  the  art  schools  are  independent. 

The  University  of  Pennsylvania  is  affiliated  with  the  Pennsylvania 
Academy  of  the  Fine  Arts,  and,  with  the  co-operation  of  the  T  Square 
Club,  established  in  1904  at  the  Pennsylvania  Academy  of  the  Fine  Arts 
what  is  known  at  the  T  Square  Atelier.  In  addition,  the  University  has 
its  own  School  of  Architecture,  and  its  students  are  eligible  for  the  $2,000 
Cresson  architectural  traveling  scholarship  of  the  Academy. 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  COLLEGES.  311 

DRAWING   IN    UNIVERSITY   EXTENSION    WORK. 

A  number  of  universities  have  given  work  outside  of  their  regular 
classes  and  in  some  cases  this  has  gradually  crystallized  into  Teachers' 
Colleges  and  departments  of  normal  work.  Drawing  and  art  instruction 
are  naturally  among  the  subjects  taught.  When  a  university  is  opened  in 
a  city  and  such  university  desires  to  introduce  itself  favorably  to  the 
people,  it  is  quite  apt  to  reach  out,  to  help  those  who  are  not  in  a  position 
to  do  work  of  college  grade. 

This  was  the  case  when  the  Tulane  University  of  Louisiana  was 
established  in  New  Orleans  in  1884,  as  a  reorganization  and  enlargement 
of  the  old  University  of  Louisiana,  dating  from  1834.  As  secondary  edu- 
cation was  then  not  well  organized,  a  high  school  was  opened  which  had 
full  courses  in  manual  training  and  drawing.  Drawing  had  been  in- 
cluded in  the  scheme  of  college  studies,  from  the  first.  To  enlarge  the 
usefulness  of  the  University,  the  four  drawing  studios  were  thrown  open 
to  men  and  boys  who  had  left  school,  four  nights  in  the  week ;  to  the 
teachers  of  the  public  schools  on  Saturday  and  finally,  such  was  the 
demand,  to  women,  two  nights  in  the  week.  The  policy  was  followed  of 
never  turning  any  person  away  who  had  finished  his  general  schooling. 
The  attendance  increased  to  eight  hundred  free  students  in  drawing  and 
art  work ;  men,  youths  and  women,  beside  the  two  hundred  students  from 
the  college  and  high  school.  At  the  same  time  there  was  established  the 
Decorative  Art  League  for  women,  with  classes  conducted  in  an  art-craft 
studio  building,  with  a  large  pottery  kiln,  a  cabinet  and  wood  carving 
shop,  a  co-operative  supply  store  and  a  reading  room. 

The  Newcomb  College  for  women  provided  instruction  and  oppor- 
tunity for  women  art-workers,  in  its  art  department,  and  the  League  was 
discontinued.  The  Tulane  High  School  was  discontinued  when  the  col- 
lege was  moved  four  miles  out,  to  its  present  location,  and  the  College 
of  Technology  was  established.  The  free  school  was  then  discontinued 
as  far  as  the  men  were  concerned,  but  the  University  extension  work, 
which  had  gradually  included  other  subjects  besides  art,  has  been  con- 
tinued with  small  interruption  to  the  present  time,  and  the  University 
announces  the  opening  of  a  Teachers'  College  where  work  may  be  done 
at  such  times  and  hours  as  will  permit  a  busy  teacher  to  take  a  degree, 
without  resigning  from  the  city  schools.     This  concrete  instance  is  given 


312  ART  EDUCATION  fN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

at  some  length  to  illustrate  the  trend  of  development  of  the  extension 
movement. 

The  Temple  College,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania,  is  another  striking 
illustration  of  the  new  and  liberal  spirit  in  college  work.  Securing  its 
college  charter  in  1888,  it  conducts  instruction  leading  to  degrees,  morn- 
ing, afternoon  and  evening,  and  has  nearly  every  subject  in  its  curriculum 
and  every  grade  from  the  kindergarten, to  the  Bachelor's  degree.  Draw- 
ing enters  into  many  schemes  of  study.  The  institution  reports  about 
three  thousand  students  and  the  college  grade  appears  fully  up  to  the 
usual  requirements.  The  University  of  Maine,  established  in  1868,  offers 
art  work  in  its  summer  term  which  counts  towards  a  degree. 

DRAWING  IX  teachers'  COLLEGES. 

The  University  cf  Chicago,  established  in  1891,  is  on  a  very  broad 
basis  and  among  other  features  has  its  summer  school  term  of  equal 
importance  with  the  other  terms  of  the  year  with  work  which  counts 
towards  a  degree.  Its  College  of  Education  affords  much  instruction  in 
drawing  and  art-craft  analyzed  for  the  benefit  of  students  intending  to 
teach.  Its  various  branches  are,  however,  not  under  one  art  director, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  Teachers  College  of  Columbia  University,  New  York. 

The  Teachers  College  of  the  University  of  Missouri — established 
in  1839 — is  a  good  example  of  the  late  development  of  collegiate  educa- 
tion. In  this  institution  art  is  given  an  importance  formerly  denied  the 
su])ject.  In  the  Department  of  Free-hand  Drawing,  the  outline  of  work 
is  fairly  representative.  An  introductory  course  in  representation  gives 
a  general  survey  of  delineation.  The  principles  and  theories  are  pre- 
sented in  lectures  with  some  collateral  reading.  Practice  is  given  in 
drawing  with  pencil,  pen  and  mk,  and  in  painting  with  water  colors — 
three  periods  a  week.  Students  may  take  this  course  as  a  direct  aid  to 
scientific  work,  the  history  of  art  or  other  university  courses.  The  theory 
of  design  is  ]M-esented  with  desi-i^^n  as  fundamental  to  the  fine  arts 
(architecture,  painting,  sculpture)  and  the  crafts.  Lectures  are  given 
and  readinp.  >tudy  cf  examples,  original  exercises  required — three  periods 
a  week.  The  course  in  construction  offers  consideration  of  past  and 
present  usage  in  the  artistic  construction  of  the  human  figure,  with  lec- 
tures, study  of  examples  and  reading,  drawing  and  modeling  from  casts 
and  life. — tlirec  hours'  credit  each  semester.     The  course  in  color  offers 


^£i^±:kj±,^^^i^^^iMS?^^m^ 


POTTERY    DESIGNS^    SCHOOL   OF    INDUSTRIAL    ARTS^   TRENTON,    N.    J. 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  COLLEGES.  31S 

analysis  of  the  composition  and  relation  of  tones — value,  color  quality, 
intensity,  with  equivalents  in  pigments  —  three  hours'  credit  each 
semester.  Students  in  courses  in  construction  and  tone  attend  a  sketch 
class  one  evening  a  week  and  are  given  a  subject  for  composition  twice 
each  month.  The  course  in  painting  offers  style,  theory,  and  methods  of 
various  schools  and  movements.  Lectures,  study  of  examples  and  read- 
ing are  required,  and  practice  in  painting  from  landscape  and  life,  with 
work  in  original  composition, — three  hours'  credit  each  semester.  The 
course  in  the  teaching  of  art  offers  critical  study  of  theories  and  methods 
in  the  teaching  of  art.  It  is  open  only  to  advanced  students — twice  a 
week. 

LECTURE  COURSES  IN  THE  HISTORY  OF  ART  AND  ARCHAEOLOGY. 

This  department  of  art  instruction  is  the  most  firmly  established  and 
generally  developed  of  all,  in  colleges,  and  is  frequently  combined  with 
studio  practice. 

Princeton  University.  Princeton,  New  Jersey,  is  prominent  among 
those  maintaining  important  courses  in  the  history  of  architecture,  paint- 
ing and  sculpture,  primarily  from  the  standpoint  of  archaeology  rather 
than  graphics.    Out  of  fourteen  courses  offered  only  five  require  drawing. 

Rutgers  College,  New  Brunswick,  New  Jersey  (established  in  1766), 
is  an  exam.ple  of  a  college  having  the  usual  drawing  for  engineering,  but 
no  studio  work  in  connection  with  its  excellent  course  of  lectures  on  art 
for  seniors  by  John  C.  Van  Dyke.  These  lectures  are  on  the  history  of 
painting,  covering  the  ground  from  the  earliest  records  of  art  in  history 
to  the  present  day.  They  are  illustrated  by  lantern  slides  and  by  the 
casts,  photographs  and  facsimiles  of  the  fine  arts  collection. 

In  Wellesley  College  (for  women)  at  Wellesley,  Massachusetts- 
established  in  1875— the  general  principle  of  the  art  department  is  that 
the  practice,  history  and  criticism  should  not  be  divided.  In  every  history 
of  art  course  sketch  notes  in  connection  with  a  class  study  of  photographs 
are  expected,  but  not  required.  One  course  in  studio  (practical)  work  is 
expected  (not  required),  in  connection  with  a  stated  amount  of  history 
work.     Seven  courses  are  offered  in  art  history. 

Smith  College  (for  women),  at  Northampton.  Massachusetts- 
established  in  1875— has  an  important  art  department,  giving  five  prac- 
tical and  five  theoretical  and  historical  courses. 


3i6  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

To  quote  the  statement  of  one  course :  "Art  interpretation  :  A  study 
of  structure,  content  and  qualities  in  sculpture  and  painting.  Specimen 
topics :  The  work  of  art  as  an  organism ;  beauty  not  accidental ;  analysis 
of  form  harmonies,  of  color  harmonies ;  observation  of  color  and  light  in 
nature ;  the  spirit  of  art.  The  student  learns  to  recognize  the  great  masters 
at  sight ;  principles  of  form  and  color  as  applied  to  every  day  life.  Il- 
lustrated lectures,  readings,  text  book,  extra  half  hour  weekly  for  quiz. 
For  juniors  and  seniors,  two  hours  through  the  year."  The  recent  addi- 
tion of  a  course  in  design  rounds  out  the  scope. 

Mount  Holyoke  College  (for  women),  Massachusetts,  founded  in 
1837,  is  one  of  the  strongest  advocates  of  art  education,  having  an  attend- 
ance of  forty-four  per  cent,  of  its  students  in  art.  "Fifteen  courses  are 
offered  each  year  in  history  of  art.  Studio  work  is  done  in  connection 
with  nearly  every  course.  Drawing  has  been  taught  from  nearly  the 
opening  year,  1837,  ^"<^l  ^^e  history  of  art  since  1874." 

The  University  of  Chicago  offers  twenty  courses  in  archaeology  and 
history  of  art,  and  includes  a  course  in  "A.merican  art — an  outline  study— 
a  brief  study  of  the  older  American  painters,  and  a  more  careful  examina- 
tion of  the  work  of  the  contemporary  painters  and  the  best  known 
sculptors."  Newcomb  College  also  includes  a  course  of  lectures  on 
American  art  in  its  art  history  courses,  with  lantern  slide  illustrations. 

Only  the  newer  colleges  seem  to  recognize  the  existence  of  American 
art  as  a  subject  for  lectures.  It  is  certainly  time  that  our  colleges  awoke 
to  the  importance  of  the  good  work  of  our  own  country  in  painting,  sculp- 
ture, architecture  and  art-crafts.  The  position  of  the  smaller  colleges 
is  illustrated  by  the  following  lines  quoted  from  a  letter  to  the  w'riter,  by 
the  president  of  Kalamazoo  College :  "The  only  thing  we  do  in  that 
direction  is  to  offer  each  year  a  one  term  course  in  the  history  of  art.  This 
is  taken  as  a  means  of  general  culture  and  has  no  technical  training  con- 
nected with  it.  I  hope  that  we  may  at  some  time  have  a  Department  of 
Art  connected  with  this  institution." 

The  newest  branch  to  come  to  the  front  in  art  work  in  colleges  is 
art-crafts.  This  is  exemplified  in  the  case  of  the  James  Milliken  University, 
Decatur,  Illinois — established  in  1903 — where  its  School  of  Fine  and  Ap- 
plied Art  off'ers  the  degree  of  B.  S.  in  fine  and  applied  art.  The  institution 
is  open  to  Ijo'-h  sexes  and  its  development  will  be  observed  with  interest. 

The  art  departments  of  several  universities  favor  the  art-crafts,  and 


MEMORY    SKETCHES,    NORMAL    DEPARTMENT,    ART    INSTITUTE,    CHICAGO.    ILL. 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  COLLEGES.  319 

Chicago  University  gives  courses  in  house  decoration  (three  courses)  ;  a 
craft  course;  textiles  (three  courses);  pottery  (three  courses)  ;  metal- 
working  (three  courses). 

Newcomb  College  (New  Orleans),  which  has  sixty-six  per  cent,  of 
its  students  taking  art,  has  gone  further.  In  the  absence  of  art  industries 
in  the  South  it  has  established  art-crafts  as  a  complete  business  in  the 
College.  At  present  this  college,  in  addition  to  its  course  in  normal  art, 
is  fostering  several  industries ;  chief  among  them,  and  the  first  to  be  intro- 
duced, is  the  manufacture  of  decorated  pottery.  A  handsome  and  sub- 
stantial plant  has  been  built  for  this  work,  with  special  class  and  sales 
rooms  and  installed  with  necessary  machinery.  The  work  of  the  students 
which  attains  the  fixed  standard  is  valued  and  paid  for  and  the  College 
becomes  the  owner  and  offers  the  ware  for  sale  at  home  and  in  agencies 
scattered  throughout  the  country.  Next  in  importance  is  needlework. 
This  is  ofifered  for  sale  with  the  pottery  and  every  effort  is  made  for  its 
distribution.  The  school  does  not  in  this  case  become  the  purchaser.  It 
was  hoped  that  the  established  business  of  the  pottery  and  the  attention 
attracted  to  that  enterprise,  would  be  strong  enough  to  develop  this  work 
by  direct  public  support.  Indications  seem  to  support  the  hope.  The  use 
of  stained  glass  in  the  making  of  lamp  shades,  fire  screens,  etc.,  is  another 
from  of  art  application  which  has  met  with  some  success. 

The  most  recent  development  of  this  attempt  to  turn  the  art  school 
into  a  manufacturing  studio,  where  its  productions  may  find  a  practical 
direction  and  be  offered  for  sale,  is  the  opening  of  additional  sales  rooms, 
in  which  the  various  artistic  crafts  which  are  the  outcome  of  the  school, 
such  as  metal  work,  stenciling  on  cloth,  woven  rugs,  illuminated  texts, 
together  with  pictures,  are  displayed.  These  are  sold  by  the  workers 
themselves,  who  in  addition  to  the  sale  of  their  own  productions,  receive 
a  commission  on  all  that  they  may  sell  for  others. 

CONCLUSION. 

In  conclusion  it  may  be  stated  that  it  appears  that  the  position  of 
drawing  and  art  instruction  in  universities  is  strengthening  and  that  the 
plan  for  the  best  development  is  to  have  the  organization  and  endowment 
of  the  art  department  separate  from,  but  affiliated  with  the  main  insti- 
tution, that  college  politics  may  not  meddle  with  or  destroy  its  efficiency. 

Art  schools  unrelated  to  colleges  have  often  lacked  the  finer  influences 


APPLIED    DESIGN,    SCHOOL    OF    INDUSTRIAL    ARTS,   TRENTON,    N.    J. 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  COLLEGES.  321 

of  literature,  the  broadening  environment,  the  healthy  stimulus  of  sys- 
tematic gymnastics  and  the  wider  circle  of  social  life.  It  is  thus  a  decided 
advantage  for  the  art  school  to  have  a  close  association  with  the  religious, 
social,  musical  and  literary  life  of  the  university. 

The  original  work  in  colleges  was  handicapped  by  the  lack  of  strong 
teachers  of  art,  and  some  institutions  found  themselves  hindered  rather 
than  helped  by  having  instructors  of  little  culture,  skill  or  imagination. 
It  is  only  in  the  present  generation  that  there  has  been  developed  a  supply 
of  teachers  whose  ability  and  attainments  are  comparable  with  their  col- 
leagues'. 

The  present  occasion  is  the  first  attempt,  so  far  as  the  writer  is  aware, 
to  make  a  general  survey  of  the  college  field.  The  great  good  to  come 
from  united  effort  is  indicated,  but  some  points  of  weakness  may  be 
mentiored.  A  great  success  has  attended  the  rapid  development  of  the 
engineering  colleges  throughout  the  country.  In  the  attempt  in  these 
schools  to  crowd  the  full  professional  education  into  four  college  years, 
more  and  more  of  the  humanities  and  culture  studies  have  been  sacrificed, 
so  that  a  student  is  not  given  the  proper  time  to  reflect  and  look  on  the 
finer  sides  of  life.  The  teachers'  colleges  of  the  larger  universities  will 
prove  a  great  improvement  over  the  country  normal  schools,  in  the  broad- 
ening contact  they  give  with  many  departments  of  study.  This  is  spe- 
cially true  of  the  courses  in  art.  The  institutions  developing  the  art-crafts 
cannot  but  have  a  great  influence  in  the  development  of  taste.  No 
woman's  college  can  afford  to  neglect  this  matter. 

Statistics  regarding  art  education  in  colleges  are  as  follows : 


322 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


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POTTERY,   NEWCOMB   COLLEGE,    NEW    ORLEANS,   LA. 


NORMAL    ART    SCHOOLS. 

By  Jeannette  Buckley. 

THE  great  movements  that  have  affected  the  hfe  of  the  community 
during  the  past  twenty-five  or  thirty  years  have  naturally  affected 
the  education  of  the  community.  The  mental  development  which  has 
followed  these  movements  has  been  more  apparent  in  the  change  of  view 
in  regard  to  the  educational  significance  of  drawing  than  in  any  other 
form  of  school  work.  Many  can  recall  the  time  when  the  equipment  of 
the  special  teacher  consisted  of  such  knowledge  of  drawing  as  could  be 
acquired  at  a  "Female  Seminary"  or  Academy,  and  such  theory  of  educa- 
tion as  was  contained  in  a  set  of  type  solids ;  or,  looking  still  further  into 
history,  when  the  careful  drawing  of  windmills  and  castles  from  copies 
in  outline  was  the  sum  total  of  the  teaching  of  the  serious  but  undeveloped 
art  teacher. 

In  the  course  of  time,  through  the  efforts  of  leaders  in  the  educational 
field,  came  the  recognition  of  the  fact  that  drawing  in  the  public  schools 
should  mean  something  more  than  the  ability  to  draw,  something  more 
than  castles  and  type  solids ;  that  it  should  be  related  to  the  life  of  the 
child  and  to  the  school  work ;  that  it  should  train  his  powers  of  observa- 
tion and  judgment;  that  it  should  be  educational,  a  means  of  self- 
expression  and  of  self-activity.  It  should  result  in  a  development  which 
would  enable  the  child  more  fully  to  take  his  place  in  the  community  life. 
With  this  recognition  came  the  demand  for  schools  where  teachers 
would  be  given  suitable  instruction ;  hence  the  establishment  of  normal 
art  schools.  In  these  schools  the  courses  include  a  broad  training  in 
the  underlying  principles  of  education  and  a  thorough  understanding  of 
free  hand  and  instrumental  drawing,  painting  and  modeling,  and  their 
application  to  industry. 

The  faculties  of  these  schools  consist  of  a  director  or  principal  of 
the  department,  instructors  of  special  subjects,  and  lecturers  on  various 
topics  of  historical  and  technical  interest.     The  normal  art  departments 


326  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

connected  with  art  schools  and  art  institutes  are  under  the  leadership  of  a 
director,  who  is  personally  responsible  for  the  results  of  the  work.  The 
teaching  staff  in  each  school  includes  the  names  of  many  well  known 
artists,  among  them  painters,  illustrators,  sculptors  and  designers  of  note. 
Among  those  listed  as  teachers,  from  tim.e  to  time,  in  the  normal  art 
schools,  in  addition  to  the  regular  instructors,  are  many  who  are  con- 
tributors to  the  art  exhibitions. 

While  all  normal  art  schools  are  established  for  one  purpose, 
namely,  the  training  of  supervisors  and  special  teachers  of  drawing,  the 
schools  carry  out  their  ideas  in  individual  fashion.  Some  attach  more 
importance  to  technical  training,  and  so  make  the  course  extend  over  a 
period  of  three  to  five  years.  These  variations  may  be  noted,  for  instance, 
in  the  Cleveland  School  of  Art,  where  the  course  runs  for  five  years, 
as  against  that  of  Pratt  Institute,  where  the  normal  art  course  may  be 
completed  in  two  years.  It  must  be  made  clear,  however,  that  the  students 
are  admitted  to  the  first  school  named  at  fifteen  years  of  age  and  without 
examination,  while  the  candidate  to  be  admitted  to  Pratt  Institute  must 
be  eighteen  years  of  age,  must  be  a  graduate  of  a  high  school,  and  must 
take  an  entrance  examination.  Thus,  in  comparing  the  courses  of  study 
described,  the  conditions  of  admission  should  be  carefully  noted. 

There  follows  a  list  of  the  normal  art  schools  now  in  existence, 
together  with  a  brief  historical  sketch  of  each  school,  a  description  of  its 
course  of  study,  and  special  items  of  interest  regarding  its  organi- 
sation. 

THE  MASSACHUSETTS   NORMAL  ART  SCHOOL. 

The  Massachusetts  Normal  Art  School,  of  Boston,  Massachusetts, 
George  H.  Bartlett,  Director,  was  founded  in  1873,  by  art  Act  of  Legis- 
lature, to  provide  training  for  supervisors  and  special  teachers  of  drawing 
in  the  State  of  Massachusetts.  This  school  occupies  a  fine  building  with 
commodious,  light  rooms  and  lecture  halls,  and  is  well  equipped.  It  is 
a  State  institution,  and  therefore  the  tuition  is  free  to  students  residing 
within  the  State.  A  fee  of  fifty  dollars  for  each  half  year  is  charged 
students  coming  from  other  States. 

The  Conditions  of  Admission. — Candidates  must  be  over  sixteen 
years  of  age ;  they  must  present  a  certificate  of  moral  character  and  a 
high  school   diploma  or  its  equivalent.     In   addition  to   this  there   is  a 


ELEMENTARY   DESIGN,  JUNIOR   CLASS,   TEACHERS  COI.LECE.   NEW   YORK,  N.   Y. 


NORMAL  ART  SCHOOLS.  329 

written  examination  in  English,  civil  government,  elementary  botany 
and  physiology,  as  well  as  the  test  in  drawing.  To  the  examination 
results  in  the  last  subject  much  importance  is  attached.  The  test  includes 
drawing  in  light  and  shade  from  objects,  from  casts  of  ornament  and  from 
details  of  the  antique.  A  physician's  certificate  showing  that  the  candidate 
is  physically  fitted  to  undertake  the  contemplated  course  of  study,  must 
also  be  presented. 

Courses  of  Instruction. — This  school  offers  five  elective  courses. 
Four  of  these  aim  to  give  the  student  technical  knowledge  in  drawing, 
painting  and  composition,  in  the  constructive  arts  and  in  applied  design. 
With  the  fifth  course  this  paper  is  particularly  concerned.  This,  like  the 
others,  covers  a  period  of  four  years,  and  aims  to  prepare  students  to  fill 
positions  as  supervisors  and  teachers  of  drawing  in  the  public  schools. 
The  first  three  years  it  is  distinctly  an  art  course.  The  pupils  draw  and 
paint  from  cast,  life  and  still  life ;  receive  instruction  in  composition  and 
applied  design,  artistic  anatomy,  perspective  and  the  history  of  art.  The 
fourth  year  of  the  course  is  given  to  preparation  for  the  teaching  of 
drawing.  It  includes  blackboard  drawing,  exercises  in  the  various 
mediums  used  in  the  public  schools,  exercises  in  design  as  adapted  to 
public  school  requirements,  methods  of  lesson  presentation,  and  details 
of  supervision.  In  addition  to  this,  the  students  observe  and  practice 
teaching  in  the  public  schools.  The  work  of  each  student  must  be  pre- 
sented to  the  principal  and  members  of  the  faculty  four  times  during  the 
school  year.  Pupils  who  fail  to  show  suflficient  progress  are  requested 
to  discontinue  their  studies.  At  the  end  of  the  course  there  is  an  exam- 
ination covering  the  history  and  principles  of  education,  methods  of 
teaching  and  supervision,  and  an  essay  on  the  application  of  the  arts 
to  industry. 

PRATT  INSTITUTE,  NEW  YORK    (BOROUGH  OF  BROOKLYN),  N.  Y. 

Pratt  Institute,  Walter  Scott  Perry.  Director  of  the  Department  of 
Fine  and  Applied  Arts,  was  established  by  Charles  Pratt  in  1887, 
to  promote  manual  and  industrial  education,  as  well  as  to  instruct  in 
science  and  art.  The  Institute  is  liberally  endowed  and  does  not  depend 
on  its  tuition  fees  of  twenty-five  dollars  a  term  or  seventy-five  dollars  a 
year,  to  meet  expenses. 

Courses    of    Instruction. — Pratt  Institute  is  not  alone  a  normal  art 


330  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

school.  It  is  in  reality  a  group  of  great  schools,  divided  into  separate 
departments,  as  follows :  Normal  Art  and  Manual  Training  School, 
Departments  of  Domestic  Art,  Domestic  Science,  Electricity,  Chemistry, 
Science  and  Technology,  Kindergarten,  and  Libraries.  The  Institute  has 
also  a  museum  where  are  displayed  valuable  collections  of  illustrative 
material,  including  seventeen  thousand  mounted  photographs  of  archi- 
tecture, sculpture,  painting  and  ornament,  and  a  large  collection  of  textiles 
and  ceramics. 

The  Normal  Art  Course  is  a  two  years'  course,  and  prepares  the 
students  to  fill  positions  as  supervisors  and  teachers  of  art  in  elementary, 
high  and  normal  schools.  The  Normal  Art  and  Manual  Training  Course 
is  also  a  two  years'  course,  and  prepares  students  to  fill  positions  as  teach- 
ers and  supervisors  of  art  and  manual  training  in  elementary  and  grammar 
schools,  and  also  as  teachers  of  drawing  and  applied  arts  in  the  higher 
schools. 

Requirements  for  Admission. — Applicants  must  be  at  least  eighteen 
years  of  age,  must  have  a  good  general  education,  equivalent  to  a  four 
year  course  in  high  school ;  they  must  submit  work  giving  evidence  of  a 
comprehensive  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  freehand  perspective,  the 
elementary  principles  of  design,  and  ability  to  draw  from  ornament  and 
nature  in  outline  and  in  simple  light  and  shade.  In  addition,  applicants 
who  are  not  normal  training  school  graduates  or  teachers  of  at  least 
three  years'  experience  are  required  to  take  entrance  examinations  in 
general  history,  English  and  American  literature,  current  events  and  the 
use  of  English.  All  applicants  must  take  an  examination  in  plane 
geometry.  Students  failing  to  pass  any  of  the  entrance  examinations 
must  fulfill  during  the  year  such  requirements  as  may  be  imposed.  Stu- 
dents who  are  not  able  to  satisfactorily  complete  the  work  in  two  years 
are  required  to  extend  their  course  to  three  years. 

In  methods  of  instruction  it  is  recognized  by  Pratt  Institute  that  stu- 
dents should  be  given  an  opportunity  to  secure  the  highest  professional 
training  and  skill  that  it  is  possible  to  acquire,  and  also  the  knowledge  of 
the  nature,  spontaneous  activities,  and  interests  of  children. 

Many  sequential  exercises  are  introduced  in  all  technical  subjects 
with  special  reference  to  the  capacity  of  the  child  in  the  various  grades 
of  the  public  schools,  but  the  normal  students  are  required  to  reach  a 
standard  in  their  technical  w'ork  far  in  advance  of  the  demands  made  in 


TEXTILE  DESIGN,   NORMAL  CLASS,   PRATT   INSTITUTE,   NEW   YORK    (BOROUGH   OF 

BROOKLYN),    N.    Y. 


SURFACE   PATTERNS,   WALL   PAPER  AND   MOSAIC, 
SCHOOL   OF  DESIGN   FOR   WOMEN,   PHILADELPHIA,   PA. 


NORMAL  ART  SCHOOLS.  333 

these  schools.  The  work  in  the  Normal  Art  and  Manual  Training  Course 
includes  in  the  first  year  freehand  drawing,  modeling,  freehand  perspec- 
tive, still  life,  design  and  composition,  applied  arts,  constructive  and  in- 
strumental drawing,  history  of  art,  psychology,  and  art  as  related  to 
general  education.  In  the  second  year  the  work  embraces  the  studv  of 
life  drawing,  pictorial  illustration,  color,  design  and  composition,  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  history  of  art,  history  of  education,  and  art  and  manual 
training  as  related  to  general  education,  wood  construction,  wood  carv- 
mg,  tooled  leather,  bent  iron  and  hammered  metal.  During  the  school 
year  there  are  class  lectures  on  perspective,  design,  color,  composition, 
artistic  anatomy  and  illustrated  lectures  on  the  history  of  architecture, 
sculpture,  painting  and  ornament. 

During  the  course  much  original  thought  and  work  are  required,  the 
ideas  of  the  students  finding  expression  in  class  discussions,  in  illustrated 
exercises  prepared  for  the  various  grades,  in  typical  lessons,  in  the 
arrangement  of  ideal  courses  of  study,  and  in  practice  teaching  in  Satur- 
day morning  classes. 

THE  PHILADELPHIA  SCHOOL  OF  DESIGN   FOR   WOMEN. 

The  Philadelphia  School  of  Design  for  Women,  Emily  Sartain  prin- 
cipal, was  founded  under  private  auspices  by  Mrs.  Sarah  Peter  in  1844. 
It  was  incorporated  in  1853  to  train  young  women  for  professional  careers 
in  art  and  applied  art,  both  as  producers  of  original  work  and  as  teachers. 

The  school  occupies  a  beautiful  modern  building,  extending  around 
three  sides  of  a  large  campus.  The  wings  of  the  building  are  occupied  by 
studios  and  class  rooms  that  are  well  ventilated,  warmed  and  excellently 
lighted.  The  studios  and  class  rooms  are  thirteen  in  number.  Besides 
these  there  is  a  large  lecture  room,  a  library  of  valuable  books  on  art, 
engravings,  photographs  and  studies  in  architecture,  ornamental  and  prac- 
tical design,  and  a  gallery  containing  statuary  and  other  exhibits. 

This  school  charges  a  luition  fee  of  twenty-five  dollars  a  term.  The 
first  year  of  the  normal  course  serves  as  a  preparatory  class  for  all 
branches  taught  in  the  school.  This  work  includes  clay  modeling,  draw- 
ing in  charcoal,  pencil  and  color  from  plant  forms,  geometric  solids,  still 
life  and  life;  exercises  in  composition  and  applied  design,  and  perspective; 
study  of  the  history  of  art  and  architecture.  There  are  final  examinations 
in  these  subjects. 


334  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

THE  CHICAGO  ACADEMY  OF  FINE  ARTS. 

In  1904  the  normal  department  of  the  Chicago  Academy  of  Fine 
Arts  was  estabhshed,  Mrs.  Emma  M.  Church  principal,  "not  onl\-  to  fit 
students  for  the  responsibility  of  directing  and  teaching  art  in  its  various 
phases  in  the  primary,  secondary,  high  and  technical  schools,  but  also  to 
acquaint  them  with  the  principles  of  scientific  education,  that  they  may 
share  the  work  of  developing  a  still  better  balanced  scheme  than  now 
prevails."  The  school  is  a  private  unendowed  school  supported  bv  tuition 
fees.  The  normal  course  includes  charcoal  and  color  work  from  life,  still 
life,  flowers,  etc. ;  principles  of  design,  composition  and  color,  applied 
design,  perspective,  construction  work,  pedagogy,  physiology,  psychology 
and  history  of  art. 

THE   ART   INSTITUTE   OF   CHICAGO. 

The  Art  Institute  of  Chicago,  William  M.  R.  French,  director,  was 
established  in  1879  "for  the  founding  and  maintenance  of  schools  of  art 
and  design,  the  formation  and  exhibition  of  objects  of  art,  and  the  culti- 
vation and  extension  of  the  arts  of  design,  by  any  appropriate  means." 
The  growth  of  enthusiasm  in  the  subject  of  drawing  and  its  relation  to 
child  life  and  interests,  on  the  part  of  the  grade  teachers  of  Chicago, 
created  a  desire  among  the  teaching  body  for  greater  knowledge  of  the 
subject.  At  the  earnest  request  of  the  Supervisor  of  Art  in  Chicago  Pub- 
lic Schools,  a  Normal  class  for  teachers  was  established  in  1894,  to  be 
held  on  Saturdays,  in  the  forenoon.  The  class  was  formed  with  an  aver- 
age attendance  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  men  and  women,  who  came, 
eager  for  whatever  might  be  ofifered.  The  interest  displayed  by  the  class 
was  great,  and  this,  together  with  the  fact  that  there  was  an  unmis- 
takable advance  in  technique,  caused  the  originators  of  the  plan  to  feel 
that  a  vital  work  was  being  accomplished.  Following  this  beginning, 
special  classes  were  arranged  for  the  students  of  the  Art  Institute,  who 
desired  to  make  a  study  of  the  educational  value  of  art  and  to  prepare 
themselves  to  apply  this  knowledge  in  practical  work.  This,  in  turn,  de- 
veloped into  the  present  Normal  Art  Department,  Jeannette  Buckley,  prin- 
cipal, where  the  object  is  to  qualify  graduates  to  act  as  supervisors  or 
teachers  of  art  education  in  public,  private  or  normal  schools.  The  school 
is  supported  chiefly  by  tuition  receipts. 

The  Normal  Department  of  the  Art  Institute  of  Chicago  is  part  of  a 


LANDSCAPE   COMPOSITION,   PRATT 


INSTITUTE,    NEW   YORK    (BOROUGH    OF   BROOKLYN),   N.    Y. 


NORMAL  ART  SCHOOLS.  337 

large  art  school  having  many  class  rooms,  a  fine  lecture  hall,  where  dis- 
tinguished speakers  are  heard  each  week,  a  library  with  a  wealth  of  books, 
mounted  photographs  and  Japanese  prints,  and  a  large  art  museum  con- 
taining not  only  paintings  and  sculpture,  but  collections  of  jades,  crystals, 
textiles  and  other  objects  of  art. 

Conditions  of  Admission. — Candidates  must  be  graduates  of  a  high 
school,  or  have  an  education  equivalent  to  this ;  they  must  also  pass  ex- 
aminations in  charcoal  outline  from  cast,  in  drawing  from  still  life  in  char- 
coal and  color,  etc.  The  tuition  fees  are  thirty  dollars  a  term  or  ninety 
dollars  a  year. 

Course  of  Study. — The  course  occupies  three  years,  but  students  who 
are  well  grounded  in  the  practice  of  drawing  may  accomplish  it  in  two 
years. 

The  work  of  the  Nonr.al  Department  includes  drawing  and  painting 
from  cast,  life,  still  life,  landscape  and  imagination ;  artistic  anatomy, 
perspective,  composition,  design,  clay  modeling,  pottery,  elementary  man- 
ual training,  mechanical  and  constructive  drawing;  history  of  sculpture, 
painting  and  textiles;  history  of  education,  psychology^  consideration  of 
educational  movements  and  courses  of  study,  teaching,  exercises  in  the 
class  room,  graded  illustrative  work  and  details  of  supervision.  Graduates 
are  required  to  pass  examinations  in  history  of  art,  perspective  and 
psychology,  and  to  hand  in  outlines  of  work  for  the  grades  in  elementary 
and  high  schools.  The  educational  principles  on  which  the  work  in  the 
Normal  Department  is  founded  are  freedom,  self-activity,  imitation,  pres- 
ervation and  presentation  of  wholes,  a  recognition  that  "all  art  has  its  be- 
ginning in  play,"  and  that  "in  the  degree  that  we  meet  the  child  on  his 
own  ground  and  widen  the  range  of  his  self-activity  we  broaden  his  in- 
tellectual activity." 

CLEVELAND  SCHOOL  OF  ART. 

The  Cleveland  School  of  Art,  Georgle  Leighton  Norton,  principal, 
was  incorporated  in  1882  .is  "The  Western  Reserve  School  of  Design  for 
Women,"  with  Henry  C.  Ranney  as  president  of  the  corporation.  In 
1904  work  was  begun  on  the  new  Cleveland  Art  School,  and  the  build- 
ing is  now  complete  at  a  cost  of  more  than  one  hundred  thousand  dollars. 
At  present  the  school  is  not  endowed.  The  tuition  fees  arc  forty  dollars 
a  year  for  the  first  year,  fifty  dollars  for  the  second,  and  sixty  dollars  each 
year  for  the  third,  fourth  and  fifth  years. 


338  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Conditions  for  Admission. — Students  wishing  to  enter  this  course 
must  be  over  fifteen  years  of  age,  must  have  at  least  a  high  school 
education  or  its  equivalent,  and  must  present  suitable  recommendations 
from  some  well  known  person. 

Course  of  Instruction. — The  school  ofifers  courses  in  pictorial  art, 
sculpture,  decorative  design  and  architectural  sculpture,  each  covering 
four  years.  The  course  in  normal  art  training  extends  over  five  years, 
and  includes  four  years  of  practice  in  free-hand  drawing  from  cast ;  from 
nude  and  draped  figure ;  from  the  head ;  sketching  from  life ;  composition, 
water  color  or  oil,  and  modeling ;  the  study  of  historic  ornament ;  and  a 
course  in  geometry,  orthographic  projection,  shadows,  etc.  Lectures  on 
anatomy  and  perspective  are  also  included.  The  fifth  year  of  the  course 
covers :  Graded  illustrative  work  combining  representation,  construction 
and  decoration ;  exercises  in  various  mediums  adapted  to  school  work ; 
blackboard  drawing ;  sloyd ;  arts  and  crafts ;  pedagogy ;  history  and 
principles  of  education ;  methods  of  lesson  presentation,  and  details  of 
supervision. 

In  detail  the  work  includes  cardboard  construction,  elementary  sloyd, 
simple  hand  loom  weaving,  leather  tooling,  metal  work,  study  in  the 
theory  and  practice  of  color,  constructive  and  applied  design.  In  order 
to  make  the  course  of  the  utmost  practical  value,  opportunity  is  offered 
to  the  students  to  teach  in  the  children's  classes  on  Saturday  mornings. 
The  students  are  also  given  the  privilege  of  observing  with  the  drawing 
teacher?  in  the  Cleveland  public  schools. 

TIII£    PENNSYLVANIA   MUSEUM   AND  SCHOOL  OF  INDUSTRIAL  ART. 

The  School  of  Industrial  Art  of  the  Pennsylvania  Museum,  Phila- 
delphia. Pa.,  Leslie  W.  Miller,  Principal,  is  an  institution  born  of  the 
interest  in  art  and  art  education  awakened  by  the  Centennial  Exposition. 
It  was  incorporated  in  1876.  Its  charter  states  the  purpose  of  the  school 
to  be:  "b^or  the  State  of  Pennsylvania,  in  the  City  of  Philadelphia, 
a  museum  of  art  in  all  its  branches  and  technical  applications,  and  with 
a  special  view  to  the  development  of  the  art  industries  of  the  State,  to 
provide  instruction  in  drawing,  painting,  modeling,  designing,  etc., 
through  practical  schools,  special  libraries,  lectures  and  otherwise."  The 
present  building  was  erected  at  a  cost  of  two  hundred  thousand  dollars, 


ILLUSTRATION    BY    NORMAL    STUDENT,  ART    INSTITUTE,    CHICAGO.    ILL. 


NORMAL  ART  SCHOOLS.  34i 

one-half  of  which  was  the  gift  of  William  Weightman  and  the  remainder 
raised  by  popular  subscriptions. 

Conditions  of  Admission. — Applicants  for  admission  to  any  of  the 
courses  are  expected  to  be  as  proficient  in  the  common  English  branches 
as  the  completion  of  the  ordinary  grammar  school  course  would  imply. 
The  entrance  examination  consists  of  an  exercise  in  English  composition, 
and  drawing  in  pencil  or  charcoal  from  models  and  simple  casts  of  orna- 
ments. 

Courses  of  Study. — The  school  offers  five  courses,  viz. :  Regular 
Course,  Normal  Art  Course,  Interior  Decoration,  Applied  Design  and 
Illustrative  Course.    Each  of  these  courses  covers  a  period  of  four  years 

The  normal  art  course  includes  model  drawing ;  drawing  from 
casts  of  ornaments,  animals  and  the  human  figure  ;  plants ;  furniture ;  study 
of  historic  ornament ;  modeling ;  instrumental  drawing.  The  students, 
after  completing  the  work  mentioned,  which  covers  a  period  of  two  years, 
must  in  the  third  and  fourth  year  show  a  satisfactory  record  in  advanced 
drawing  from  the  antique  and  from  life,  the  history  of  art  and  orna- 
ment, principles  of  color  harmony,  blackboard  drawing,  theory  and  prac- 
tice of  teaching,  and  shop  practice. 

The  tuition  fees  are  sixty  dollars  a  year  of  eight  months,  or  ten 
dollars  a  month. 

TEACHERS    COLLEGE,   COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY,   NEW  YORK  CITY,   N.   Y. 

Teachers  College,  founded  in  1888,  and  chartered  by  the  Regents  of 
the  University  of  the  State  of  New  York  in  1889,  became  in  1898  part 
of  the  educational  system  of  Columbia  University  as  the  University  Divi- 
sion of  Education,  a  professional  school  taking  rank  with  the  schools  of 
applied  science,  law  and  medicine.  Teachers  College  aflfords  to  advanced 
students  preparation  for  university  and  college  professorships  or  instruc- 
torships  in  education,  and  for  work  as  supervisors,  principals,  superin- 
tendents of  schools,  etc..  and  for  special  teachers  of  such  technical  subjects 
as  domestic  art,  domestic  science,  fine  arts,  manual  training,  etc. 

The  college  oflFers  several  courses  in  the  Department  of  Fine  Arts, 
under  the  direction  of  Arthur  W.  Dow  and  his  several  assistants. 
These  various  courses  include  one  on  theory  and  practice  of  ^teaching 
art.  This  aims  to  train  teachers  for  work  in  the  class  room.  Special 
attention  is  given  to  the  history  of  art  education;  the  principles  of  art 


342  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

teaching;  child  art;  art  and  industries;  art  in  its  relation  to  other  studies; 
methods  of  teaching  art ;  planning  of  lessons  and  courses ;  theory  of 
criticism.  After  observadon  of  expert  teaching,  students  assist  in  the 
school  room  and  teach  under  criticism.  A  second  course  is  listed  under 
Supervision  of  Fine  Arts.  This  course  includes  class  work  and  practical 
work.  The  principal  topics  in  the  course  are :  history  of  art  education  ; 
discussion  of  existing  methods ;  equipment  for  elementary,  secondary  and 
normal  schools ;  equipment  for  college  and  art  schools ;  the  art  museum 
and  art  library ;  art  training  for  grade  teachers ;  and  organization  for  art 
departments.  Each  of  these  courses  counts  six  points  toward  a  college 
degree. 

There  are  numerous  other  courses  in  principles  of  design,  art  ap- 
preciation, history  of  art,  drawing  and  painting,  painting  and  illustra- 
tion, clay  modeling,  etc.,  ofifering  from  two  to  ten  points  each  toward  a 
degree. 

In  as  much  as  the  idea  as  to  the  purpose  of  art  instruction  differs 
somewhat  in  Teachers  College  from  that  of  other  normal  schools,  the 
following  quotations  are  introduced,  that  the  scheme  of  work  may  be 
made  plain.  In  a  recent  article  on  "The  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching 
Art,"  Professor  Dow  says :  "The  true  purpose  of  art  teaching  is  the  edu- 
cation of  the  whole  people  for  appreciation.  *  *  *  Even  from  the 
economic  side,  that  education  is  deficient  which  leaves  one  unable  to  judge 
of  form  and  color  when  he  is  constantly  required  to  use  such  judgment. 
This  lack  of  appreciation  is  responsible  for  an  immense  waste  of  labor, 
skill  and  money,  and  the  production  of  useless  and  ugly  things, 

"Artists  themselves,  when  by  their  works  they  can  hold  the  atten- 
tion cl  the  people,  become  the  teachers  of  the  people.  But  when  there  is 
need  of  well  defined  methods  of  teaching  for  general  use  in  the  public 
schools,  the  artist  if  asked  for  help  will  naturally  suggest  the  means  by 
which  he  himself  obtained  his  professional  training.  The  public  will  also 
look  to  the  art  school  for  direction.  Unless  the  professional  people  have 
recognized  the  necessity  of  general  culture  in  art,  and  have  thorouehly 
studied  the  conditions,  the  probability  is  that  they  will  offer  only  a  modi- 
fication of  what  we  call  'academic'  teaching.  This  has  been  the  case  in 
large  rr«?asure,  and  art  education  has  not  advanced  equally  with  general 
education. 

"Tb.c  effort  of  the  academic  method  is  centered  upon    'learning  to 


NORMAL  ART  SCHOOLS.  3-j5 

<lra\v'  and  in  two  directions :  nature  forms  and  historic  art.  *  *  *  In  the 
main  the  effort  goes  to  the  acquiring  of  facts  and  knowledge  out  of  zi'ltich 
appreciation  may  grow  soiiiehotc,  if  indeed  the  matter  is  considered  at 
all. 

"If  we  regard  the  purpose  of  art  instruction  to  be  development  of 
power,  it  is  evident  that  our  whole  scheme  of  teaching  must  be  radically 
different  from  that  outlined  above.  *  *  *  Having  discovered  what 
are  the  elements  and  basic  principles,  the  first  step  is  an  effort  to  create 
with  them,  be  it  only  a  harmony  of  two  or  three  lines  or  spots.  From  this 
one  proceeds  in  successive  steps  up  to  compositions  of  great  complexity — 
the  design,  the  sculptured  group,  the  building  or  the  picture — using 
nature's  facts  and  historic  knowledge,  acquiring  skill  of  hand  and  ac- 
curacy of  vision,  employing  every  possible  aid  to  strong  and  clear  expres- 
sion. Skill  in  drawing  will  now  be  sought  as  a  means  of  expression,  not 
considered  as  an  end  in  itself.'' 

THE  ART  students'   LEAGU'i  OF  BUFFALO. 

A  Normal  Art  Course  has  been  recently  added  to  the  art  courses 
offered  in  this  school.  About  twenty  pupils  entered  the  class  in  1906, 
and  of  these  six  were  sufficientlv  advanced  to  take  the  regular  second  year 
work  and  were  graduated  in  June,  i<)Oj. 

The  course  covers  a  period  of  two  years.  The  students  have  the  ad- 
vantage of  practice  teaching  in  the  public  schools  of  Buft'alo.  under  the 
supervision  of  Theodore  ^I.  Dillaway,  the  director  of  drawing,  who  is  also 
director  of  the  Normal  Art  Course.  Instruction  in  the  following  subjects 
is  given  bv  the  same  officer :  normal  methods,  history  of  art.  practice  teach- 
ing, perspective  and  mechanical  drawing.  The  other  art  work  includes 
drawing  from  antique  and  life,  modeling  from  natural  and  artificial 
objects,  applied  design,  constructive  design,  historic  schools  of  painting. 

The  tuition  fee  in  this  school  is  sixty  dollars  a  year. 

THE  UNIVERSITY  OF   MINNESOTA. 

The  College  of  Education,  University  of  Minnesota,  Minneapolis, 
Minn.,  was  authorized  by  a  special  enactment  of  the  Legislature  of  Minne- 
sota in  1905.  and  was  established  by  the  Regents  of  the  University  in  the 
following  year. 

It  offers  both  a  practical    and    theoretical    training  for  high  school 


346  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

teachers  and  principals,  for  principals  of  elementary  schools,  for  super- 
visors of  special  studies  and  for  superintendents  of  school  systems. 

In  its  department  of  drawing  are  ofifered  two  normal  art  courses — 
drawing  as  related  to  education,  and  the  teaching  of  drawing.  The  first 
course  requires  for  admission  that  students  have  completed  the  college 
courses  in  elementary  and  advanced  drawing.  These  include  drawing 
from  objects,  from  plants,  from  landscapes,  and  from  figure  poses  in  pencil 
and  water  color ;  the  study  of  perspective ;  work  from  cast  in  charcoal ; 
pen  and  ink  drawing ;  exercises  in  lettering  and  in  composition.  The 
course  in  drawing  as  related  to  education  includes  exercises  in  all  the 
difiFerent  kinds  of  art  work  used  in  the  schools,  advanced  work  in  black 
and  white  and  in  color. 

The  second  course  mentioned — The  Teaching  of  Drawing — is  open 
to  students  who  have  taken  the  course  in  elementary  and  advanced  draw- 
ing and  also  the  regular  course  in  design.  This  course  is  conducted  by 
lectures  and  collateral  reading  on  the  methods  and  value  of  drawing,  as 
revealed  through  a  study  of  the  instincts  and  mental  processes  of  the 
child. 

The  college  oiifers.  in  connection  with  these  courses,  opportunity  to 
observe  and  to  discuss  the  best  methods  of  teaching  employed  in  the 
public  schools  of  Minneapolis,  St.  Paul  and  adjacent  towns.  A  practice 
school  is  being  organized  under  the  direct  control  of  the  college,  and 
when  complete  will  consist  of  high  school  and  elementary  grades,  kinder- 
garten, ungraded  room  and  a  three  grade  group.  In  this  school  the  col- 
lege students  will  observe  expert  teaching,  and  will  themselves  conduct 
lessons  in  the  various  grades. 

All  students  in  the  college  who  are  residents  of  the  State  are  charged 
an  incidental  fee  of  ten  dollars  a  term ;  non-residents  are  charged  double 
the  fee  required  of  residents  of  the  State,  or  twenty  dollars  a  term. 

THE    NEW   YORK   SCHOOL  OF   ART. 

The  Normal  Art  Department  of  this  school  is  under  the  direction  of 
I'rank  Alvah  Parsons.  The  course  is  described  as  "A  one  and  a  two 
years"  course  in  training  teachers  and  supervisors  for  public  and  private 
schools."  The  art  work  includes  drawing  and  painting  from  the  nude 
and  costumed  model ;  from  birds,  animals,  flowers ;  from  landscape  and 
still  life;  decorative  and  applied  art;  theory  and  practice  of , design ;  com- 


JEWEL  BOX   AJsiD   POTTERY,  SCHOOL  OF  INDUSTRIAL  ART,   PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 


NORMAL  ART  SCHOOLS.  349 

position — pictorial  and  decorative ;  geometry ;  perspective  and  projection 
drawing ;  handicrafts.  In  pedagogy  and  art  methods  the  work  covers  the 
relation  of  art  to  general  education ;  the  fundamental  principles  of  educa- 
tion and  their  application  to  art  instruction;  the  selection,  arrangement 
and  grading  of  material  for  school  work ;  the  development  of  the  "lesson 
plan"  and  practice  teaching  under  criticism. 

The  tuition  fee  for  one  year,  for  students  working  all  day,  is  one  hun- 
dred and  ten  dollars, 

GENERAL  FEATURES  OF  COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  NORMAL  ART  SCHOOLS. 

A  review  of  the  general  features  of  the  courses  of  study  cited  reveals 
the  fact  that  normal  art  students  receive  a  thorough  training  in  drawing 
in  various  media  from  cast,  life  and  still  life,  as  well  as  in  the  theory  and 
practice  of  design.  The  history  of  art  is  also  extensively  studied.  It  is 
noticeable,  too,  that  in  all  normal  art  courses  work  in  the  arts  and  crafts 
is  receiving  increased  attention,  thus  showing  that  these  schools  are  alive 
to  the  desirability  of  teaching  the  arts  in  use.  In  addition,  the  history  and 
principles  of  education,  as  well  as  methods  of  teaching  drawing,  and  details 
of  supervision,  form  an  important  part  of  the  normal  art  curriculum. 

PRACTICE   WORK   IN    TEACHING. 

Besides  the  training  in  considering  and  planning  outlines  of  work 
these  schools  give  their  students  the  opportunity  of  putting  these  outlines 
into  practice  in  the  school  room.  Some  normal  art  schools  have  Satur- 
day classes  for  children,  and  these  are  taught  by  the  normal  students, 
while  others,  like  the  Art  Students'  League  of  Buffalo,  send  their  students 
out  into  the  public  schools  for  observation  and  practice  teaching.  This 
tends  toward  the  development  of  that  professional  pride  which  adds 
dignity  to  the  office  of  supervisor  or  special  teacher,  while  it  also  gives 
insight  into  the  details  of  supervision,  without  which  no  directing  officer 
can  hope  to  be  a  success  in  the  profession. 

DEMAND  FOR   GRADUATES   OF    NORMAL   ART    SCHOOLS. 

It  has  now  become  usual  for  superintendents  of  public  schools  to  de- 
mand graduates  from  normal  art  schools  for  supervisors  and  teachers  of 


350  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

drawing-  and  manual  training.  It  is  realized  that  a  special  training  is  re- 
quired for  these  subjects,  and  that  the  artist  studio  trained  alone  cannot 
undertake  the  work  satisfactorily. 

In  the  report  from  Pratt  Institute  the  following  statements  are  made : 
"There  is  an  ever  increasing  demand  for  good  teachers  and  supervisors  of 
art  and  manual  training  m  public  and  private  schools.  The  department 
does  not  guarantee  positions,  but  does  all  that  is  possible  to  aid  those  best 
qualified.  During  the  past  sixteen  years,  so  far  as  reported,  students  of  the 
normal  art  and  normal  art  and  manual  training  classes  of  the  department 
of  fine  and  applied  arts  have  filled  positions  as  follows:  thirty-eight  as  in- 
structors in  colleges,  technical  and  training  schools ;  sixty-four  as  instruc- 
tors in  normal  schools ;  one  hundred  and  sixty  as  instructors  in  academies 
and  high  schools ;  three  hundred  and  sixty-nine  as  supervisors  in  public 
schools." 

Since  Alay,  1907,  to  the  present  writing,  sixty-four  graduates  from 
Pratt  Institute  have  been  appointed  to  positions.  The  States  mentioned 
in  wliich  these  students  have  been  placed,  include  not  only  the  Eastern 
States,  but  also  Indiana,  Alabama,  Illinois,  Montana,  Minnesota,  Michigan 
and  Utah,  thus  showing  that  the  Institute  has  a  far  reaching  influence 
through  its  former  students,  who  keep  in  communication  with  the  Normal 
Art  Department  and  with  its  work. 

The  Normal  Art  Department  of  the  School  of  Industrial  Art  of  the 
Pennsylvania  Museum  notes  that  one  hundred  and  four  teachers  of  draw- 
ing and  manual  training  have  received  positions  on  graduation  from 
school.  An  examination  of  the  list  reveals  the  fact  that  graduates  from 
this  school  are  to  be  found  not  only  in  the  States  of  the  ^Middle  East,  but 
also  in  Colorado,  California,  ^linnesota,  Illinois  and  Utah. 

The  report  of  the  Massachusetts  Normal  Art  School  issues  a  list 
nmu!)ering  three  hundred  and  forty-eight  names  of  graduates,  now  hold- 
ing positions  as  supervisors,  assistant  supervisors,  directors  of  art  depart- 
ments, professors  of  dra\\ing  and  architecture,  teachers  in  normal  schools 
and  high  schools,  in  towns  and  cities  of  the  United  States  covering  a  very 
wide  area.  While  the  majority  of  those  mentioned  are  to  be  found  in  the 
New  England  States,  there  are  many  now  employed  in  California,  Ohio, 
Colorado,  Oregon,  Illinois,  Maryland  and  Louisiana. 


NORMAL  ART  SCHOOLS.  351 

CONCLUSION. 

An  examination  of  the  development  of  normal  art  schools  in  the 
United  States  shows  that  these  schools  were  established  in  response  to 
the  demand  made  throughout  the  country  for  teachers  who  had  not  only 
received  a  thorough  training  in  drawing,  but  who  also  understood  methods 
of  teaching.  Specialists  trained  only  in  the  technique  of  their  specialty  no 
longer  satisfied  requirements  of  educational  progress.  The  awakening  of 
interest  in  the  subject  of  drawing  caused  its  introduction  into  the  cur- 
riculum. Later  there  followed  the  development  of  the  idea  that  drawing 
should  be  correlated  with  the  school  work,  and  connected  with  the  life  of 
the  child.  It  was  seen  that  the  work  should  be  fundamentally  educa- 
tional and  should  serve  to  broaden  the  child's  grasp  of  other  subjects 
taught  in  the  school.  It  was  also  realized  that  drawing  should  be  a 
necessary  adjunct  of  these  subjects,  not  a  fad  but  a  factor,  a  force,  a 
vitalizing  power  that  would  by  its  use  serve  to  leaven  with  interest  the 
mass  of  the  curriculum,  and  should  further  serve  to  relate  the  child's 
activities  to  the  life  about  him,  in  order  that  his  life  might  become  as 
Spencer  says,  "an  harmonious  adjustment  of  internal  to  external  rela- 
tions." The  conviction  gradually  grew,  that  the  power  of  imagination, 
without  whicii  life  in  the  fullest  sense  is  impossible,  should  be  strength- 
ened and  made  more  vivid,  and  that  the  child  should  find  in  his  e.x- 
pression  through  drawing  and  manual  training  the  joy  that  comes  through 
the  ability  to  create. 

Much  has  been  accomplished,  but  we  have  not  as  yet  arrived  at  stand- 
ards altogether  satisfactory.  It  is  admitted  that  general  education  must 
include  art  education,  that  art  education  must  be  based  on  general  edu- 
cation. Those  interested  in  the  movement  for  art  teaching  feel  that  these 
ideas  must  be  constantly  held  in  view,  believing,  as  Tolstoi  says,  that 
"the  production  of  art  is  only  the  production  of  art  when  it  introduces  a 
new  feeling,  however  insignificant,  into  the  sphere  of  human  life."  and 
that  "though  we  travel  the  world  over  to  find  the  beautiful,  we  must 
carrv  it  with  us  or  we  find  it  not." 


ART  SOCIETIES  CONNECTED  WITH  THE 
PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 

By  Frederic  Lynden  Burnham. 

A  RE  VIEW  of  the  art  activities  in  the  pubHc  schools  of  the  United 
States  during  the  past  thirty  or  forty  years  reveals  the  growth  of 
many  professional  societies  and  others  organized  to  stimulate  interest  in 
the  arts  on  the  part  of  the  general  public.  The  aims  of  the  professional 
societies  may  be  stated  to  be  a  more  thorough  examination  of  vital  edu- 
cational problems,  those  of  general  significance  and  those  related  to  the 
arts ;  a  closer  co-operation  between'  art  schools,  art  museums,  and  public 
schools;  the  promotion  of  art  as  related  to  the  crafts,  and  the  awakening 
of  an  intelligent  interest  and  co-operation  on  the  part  of  the  public. 

As  an  outgrowth  of  these  professional  organizations,  local  organiza- 
tions have  been  formed  for  the  purpose  of  instructing  and  interesting 
grade  teachers.  These  associations  aim  to  give  teachers  direct  assistance 
in  gaining  a  knowledge  and  appreciation  of  beauty,  and  its  expression  in 
creative  work.  Another  class  of  art  associations  has  been  organized, 
due  to  the  interest  awakened  by  the  larger  professional  societies.  These 
are  the  associations  formed,  not  by  teachers,  but  by  those  pul)lic-spiritcd 
and  art-loving  citizens  interested  in  art  education. 

Professional  Organizations. 

The  history  of  art  teaching  in  the  United  States  has  record  of  a  pro- 
fessional organization  formed  in  1874,  by  the  students  of  the  Massachusetts 
Normal  Art  School.  This  association  survived  but  three  years.  It  pub- 
lished, however,  a  volume  of  good  size  containing  papers  on  various  topics 
relating  to  the  arts. 

THE   national   EDUCATION    ASSOCIATION. 

The  National  Education  Association,  the  largest  educational  body 
in  the  United  States,  holds  annual  meetings  at  which  all  subjects  of  educa- 
tional interest  are  discussed.      Its    membership    includes    representatives 


354  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

from  every  educational  department,  from  the  president  of  the  university 
to  the  teacher  of  the  elementary  grade  and  kindergarten.  In  this  body, 
specialists  and  class  teachers,  directing  officers  and  other  members  of  the 
teaching  force  from  all  parts  of  the  country  meet,  to  hear  vital  questions 
discussed  by  those  most  prominent  in  the  educational  field.  In  1884, 
this  National  Association  organized  its  chapter  on  Art  Education,  with 
Langdon  S.  Thompson,  of  Indiana,  as  its  president.  Since  that  time  the 
Art  section  has  contributed  three  or  four  papers  each  year,  dealing  with 
the  teaching  of  art  in  its  various  phases  in  schools  of  all  grades.  The 
earlier  papers  deal  chiefly  with  the  teaching  of  drawing  in  primary, 
grammar,  high  and  normal  schools.  In  1886  we  find  industrial  drawing 
and  industrial  education  discussed  by  leading  educators.  Later  the 
papers  include  such  topics  as  "The  Place  of  Art  Education  in  General 
Education,"  "The  Function  of  Art  in  the  Education  of  the  American 
Citizen,"  "Shall  Art  Be  the  Servant  of  Science  or  Its  Complement" 
(]\I.  \\  O'Shea),  "The  Study  of  Fine  Art  in  the  American  College  and 
University — Its  Relation  to  the  Study  in  the  Public  Schools."  "Art  as  an 
Educational  Factor"  (J.  L.  Hughes),  "The  Educational  Influence  of 
Public  Outdoor  Art."  This  list  of  topics  shows  the  large  significance  of 
the  papers  for  general  discussion.  In  addition  to  these  there  are  also 
round  table  meetings,  where  specific  school  problems  are  presented  and 
their  solutions  described  by  those  most  vitally  connected  with  them. 

THE    COXXl-XTICUT   VALLFA'    ART    AND   INDUSTRIAL   TEACHERS'    ASSOCIATION. 

In  October,  1888.  at  Hartford,  Connecticut,  was  organized  the  so- 
ciety above  named.  It  was  founded  by  interested  art  teachers  of  central 
Connecticut,  whose  desire  to  know  the  ideals,  and  highest  standards  to  be 
attained  in  public  school  art  teaching,  led  them  to  respond  to  the  invitation 
to  attend  the  meeting  at  which  the  association  was  formed. 

The  purpose  of  this  association  was :  To  study  the  relation  of  the 
branches  of  art  and  manual  education  to  each  other,  and  to  general  edu- 
cation from  the  kindergarten  upward  :  and  to  afford  opportunity  for  the 
discussion  and  development  of  the  best  methods  of  instruction.  The 
association  further  aimed  to  foster  public  interest  in  the  branches  of  edu- 
cation represented  by  its  members.  This  association  continued  in  exist- 
ence until  the  formation  of  the  Eastern  Art  Teachers  Association  in 
1899,  when  it  was  disbanded  and  its  membership  merged  with  that  of  the 
new  societv. 


SOCIETIES  OF  ART   TEACHERS.  355 

THE  WESTERN   LRAWIXG   AM)    JfAXUAL  TRAINING   ASSOCIATION. 

Five  years  after  the  organization  of  the  association  of  teachers  in 
Connecticut,  came  the  World's  Fair  at  Chicago.  The  teachers  of  drawing 
-from  East  and  West  flocked  to  see  the  great  display  from  all  lands. 
Some  of  the  more  enthusiastic  among  the  Western  teachers  conceived  the 
idea  of  forming  a  permanent  association  for  intercourse  and  exchange 
of  ideas,  hoping  that  through  such  union  the  workers  in  the  field  of  art 
would  be  helped  to  higher  ideals  and  higher  standards  of  work.  Thus 
was  the  Western  Drawing  Teachers'  Association  founded  in  August, 
1893.  tlwring  the  World's  Fair  and  owing  to  the  inspiration  and  enthusiasm 
awakened  amidst  such  surroundings.  During  the  eleventh  meeting  of  the 
association,  May,  1904,  the  name  of  the  association  was  changed  to  the 
Western  Drawing  and  Manual  Training  Association. 

The  wonderful  progress  of  the  Western  cities  and  towns  deserves 
•comment  because  of  the  important  influence  exerted  by  the  association  in 
moulding  the  educational  system.  Full  of  untiring  energy,  the  members 
have  rendered  invaluable  service  to  education  by  their  experiments  and 
their  persistent  agitation  of  industrial  subjects.  A  sentiment  in  favor 
of  systematic  training  in  the  manual  arts  has  thus  been  created  and  is 
claiming  the  attention  of  East  and  West  alike.  The  nature  of  the 
Avork  in  the  West  is  somewhat  dilTerent  from  that  in  the  Eastern  States, 
in  that  it  combines  in  some  of  its  higher  institutions  the  advantages  of 
ordinary  high  and  manual  trainmg  schools,  and  offers  the  academic  work 
as  well  as  work  in  handicraft. 

The  meetings  of  the  association  usually  occupy  sessions  running  for 
three  days.  The  programs  are  always  very  full,  and  the  speakers  are 
not  only  drawn  from  the  immediate  field  of  art  workers  in  the  schools 
but  from  outside  the  society.  One  finds  artists  of  note,  school  superin- 
tendents and  educators  of  national  reputation  called  upon  to  present  from 
their  wider  point  of  view,  the  relation  of  art  training  and  industrial  train- 
ing to  general  education.  Some  of  the  topics  discussed  before  the 
association  since  its  formation  will  show  the  wide  range  of  thought  in- 
cluded in  the  yearly  programs.  Besides  the  usual  pajjers  on  methods  of 
teaching  the  arts,  and  discussions  on  courses  of  study  in  the  various 
departments  of  drawing  and  constructive  work,  the  following  titles  are 
noted:  "The  Principles  of  Froebel  as    the    Soundest    Pedagogics  upon 


356  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

which  to  Base  the  Educational  Side  of  Form  Study"  ;  "The  Place  of  Art 
in  the  Academic  Curriculum";  "The  Possible  Co-operation  of  Manual 
Training  Teachers  and  Drawing  Teachers  in  Public  Schools" ; 
"Imagination  and  Expression,"  John  Dewey,  Professor  of  Pedagogy,  Chi- 
cago University ;  "The  Relation  of  Nature  Study  to  Drawing,"  M.  V. 
O'Shea,  School  of  Pedagogy,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. ;  "The  Fundamental  Princi- 
ples Controlling  the  Development  of  Architecture,  Sculpture,  Painting 
and  Decoration,"  W.  S.  Perry,  Director  of  Department  of  Fine  and  Ap- 
plied Arts,  Pratt  Institute ;  "Art  in  Its  Relation  to  Education,"  James  L. 
Hughes,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Toronto,  Canada;  "Art  in  Its  Social 
Wellbeing,"  Carroll  D.  Wright,  Labor  Commissioner,  Washington,  D. 
C. ;  "The  Esthetic  Side  of  Municipal  Life,"  Professor  Charles  Zueblin, 
L^niversity  of  Chicago ;  "Household  Economics  in  the  Course  of  Study." 
There  is  one  other  notable  feature  of  the  later  programs.  This  is  a 
decided  tendency  toward  the  consideration  of  craft  work.  One  finds 
at  the  meeting  in  1906  such  addresses  as  "Wood  Block  Printing,"  "Orna- 
mental Rugs  and  Rug  Weaving,"  "Art  Craft  Problems  in  the  Schools," 
"The  Development  of  Primitive  Art  as  Illustrated  by  American  Exam- 
ples," and  "Bookbinding." 

EASTERN    ART    TEACHERS    ASSOCIATIOISr. 

The  Connecticut  \"alley  Art  Asssociation  so  widely  extended  its  in- 
fluence in  the  East  that  in  December,  1898,  Solon  P.  Davis,  its  president, 
called  a  conference  of  Art  Supervisors  in  the  Eastern  States.  The  com- 
mittee formed  at  this  meeting  drew  up  a  constitution,  which  was  adopted, 
and  the  Eastern  Art  Teachers  Association  was  formed  February  10, 
1899.  The  association  held  its  first  meeting  May  25-27  of  the  same  year, 
at  Pratt  Institute  and  The  Institute  of  Arts  and  Sciences  in  Brooklyn. 

The  main  purpose  of  this  organization  is  stated  in  its  constitution  to 
be :  To  advance  the  interests  of  art  education,  through  the  discussion  of 
art  in  its  relation  to  public  education,  industry,  and  to  social  wellbeing. 
At  the  annual  meetings  papers  related  to  the  above  topics  are  presented, 
and  the  results  of  practical  experience  in  the  teaching  of  art  in  the  pub- 
lic schools  are  reviewed  at  round  table  discussions  and  conferences.  In 
addition  to  this  there  are  exhibitions  of  work  and  the  publication  of  the 
yearly  reports  of  the  proceedings  of  all  meetings.  The  Eastern  Associa- 
tion, like  the  Western,  embraces  every  opportunity  to  bring  before  its 


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SOCIETIES  OF  ART   TEACHERS.  359 

members  those  who  are  highest  in  authority  and  n:ost  advanced  in 
thought — leaders,  capable  of  guiding  and  inspiring  its  members.  Some 
of  the  topics  discussed  during  the  past  eight  years  are  noted:  "Edu- 
cation in  Art  as  Related  to  our  Industries";  "The  Education  of  Public 
Taste  Through  the  Public  Schools";  "Tendencies  in  Art  Education"; 
"Art  in  the  Industries  and  the  Outlook  for  the  Art  Student,"  Caryl  Cole- 
man, Church  Glass  and  Decorating  Co.,  X.  Y. ;  "The  Arts  and  Crafts 
Movement,"  Henry  Belknap,  International  Gallery,  N.  Y. ;  "The  Beau- 
tifying of  Our  Cities,"  Frederick  S.  Lamb,  Municipal  Art  Society,  X. 
Y. ;  "The  Art  School  and  Its  Relation  to  the  Arts  and  Crafts,"  Walter 
S.  Perry ;  "The  Relation  of  Art  Study  to  Social  Efficiency." 

A  joint  convention  of  the  Eastern  Art  Teachers  Association  and  the 
Eastern  Manual  Training  Teachers  Association  was  held  in  Xew  York, 
May  31  and  Jime  i  and  2,  1906.  At  this  meeting  the  desirability  of  amal- 
gamating the  two  organizations  was  considered,  but  no  definite  plans 
were  made.  The  program  for  the  meeting  included  the  following  topics : 
"Work  as  a  Factor  in  Education" ;  "Culture  and  Industry  in  Education," 
John  Dewey,  Professor  of  Pedagogy,  Chicago  University ;  "The  Relation 
of  Art  to  American  Life" ;  "Art  and  Its  Relation  to  the  American  Peo- 
ple" ;  "The  Xeighborhood  vs.  the  Evolutionary  Approach  to  Work  in  the 
Primary  Grades,"  W.  A.  Baldwin,  Principal,  State  Xormal  School, 
Hyannis,  Mass. 

The  first  joint  conference  of  the  Eastern  and  Western  Associations 
of  Teachers  of  Drawing  and  ?vlanual  Training  was  held  at  Cleveland, 
Ohio,  May  7,  1907.  At  the  business  meetings  of  the  Eastern  Drawing 
Teachers  and  Eastern  Manual  Training  Teachers  associations,  the  ques- 
tion of  amalgamation  was  again  discussed  and  resolutions  passed  looking 
toward  the  union  of  the  organizations  the  following  year.  A  joint  pro- 
gram for  this  meeting  shows  a  list  of  addresses  of  great  significance. 
Some  of  these  are  noted:  "How  Public  Taste  can  be  Cultivated,"  "The 
Art  that  is  Life,"  "The  Relation  of  Manual  Training  to  Industrial  Educa- 
tion," "Democratic  Art."  There  were  also  numerous  addresses  on  the 
teaching  of  art  and  manual  training  in  the  elementary  and  high  schools. 
A  large  exhibition  of  work  from  the  Eastern  and  Western  States  formed 
a  feature  of  this  meeting.  The  exhibition  included  work  in  both  drawing 
and  manual  training  from  elementary,  high  and  normal  schools,  and  also 
from  normal  art  schools. 


36o  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

THE  COUNCIL  OF  SITPERVISORS  OF  THE   MANUAL  ARTS. 

Born  of  a  movement  initiated  by  Dr.  Haney,  of  New  York,  the 
Council  of  Supervisors  of  the  Manual  Arts  was  organized  in  1901.  In 
May  of  that  year  ten  supervisors  of  drawing  and  directors  of  art  depart- 
ments in  various  Eastern  cities  held  a  meeting  at  Hartford,  Connecti- 
cut, for  the  purpose  of  forming  an  association  which  should  stand  pri- 
marily for  professional  advancement — an  association  with  members 
elected  under  an  implied  pledge,  to  study  intensively  different  phases  of 
the  arts  and  to  contribute  the  results  of  these  studies  to  the  Council's 
"Year  Book." 

The  phases  of  work  which  the  Council  has  sought  to  develop  include 
not  only  a  study  of  the  educational  principles  on  which  art  teaching 
should  be  founded,  but  the  best  methods  of  presenting  the  various  sub- 
jects. Its  members  also  aim  to  develop  expieriments  and  to  make 
careful  and  critical  study  of  these.  They  also  analyze  the  best  known 
courses  of  study,  review  the  principles  of  supervision,  and  the  relation 
of  all  phases  of  their  work  to  general  education  and  to  all  movements 
which  aim  toward  higher  standards  of  public  taste. 

Of  marked  significance  is  the  fact  that  all  articles  are  published  in 
the  "Year  Book"  in  advance  of  the  annual  meeting.  The  program  for 
the  meeting  is  also  sent  out,  some  weeks  before  the  date  set  for  the  meet- 
ing, so  that  each  member  appointed  to  discuss  may  have  time  in  which 
to  read  and  critically  review  the  paper  assigned  to  him,  because  no  time  is 
taken  at  the  meetings  for  the  reading  of  papers.  Besides  these  assigned 
reviews  there  is  much  general  discussion  of  the  articles  by  all  active 
meml^ers  of  the  Council.  The  "Year  Book"  is  well  illustrated,  but  exhibi- 
tions of  work  are  often  contributed  where  it  seems  necessary  to  make 
more  clear  the  import  of  any  particular  article. 

The  active  membership  of  the  association  is  limited  to  forty  and  the 
associate  membership  to  one  hundred.  Each  active  member  of  the 
Council  is  expected  to  contribute  by  article  or  discussion  to  the  program 
of  the  annual  meeting.  It  has  become  customary  to  demand  of  associate 
members  who  apply  for  active  membership,  evidence  of  the  fact  that 
such  member  has  devoted  some  time  to  professional  study  and  has  added 
to  the  literature  of  the  arts  by  written  papers  or  published  articles. 

A  review  of  the  topics  which  have  been  treated  in  the  "Year 
Book"  will  serve  to  show  the  scope  of  the  work  covered  by  the  writers. 


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APPLIED    DESIGN.    NORMAL    CLASS,    PRATT    INSTITUTE,    NEW    YORK     (llOROlT.H    OF 

BROOKLYN),    N.    Y. 


SOCIETIF.S  OF  ART   TEACHERS.  363 

An  endeavor  has  been  made  by  some  of  the  members  to  contribute  a  con- 
tinued series  of  articles  during  successive  years,  as  the  group  by  Dr. 
Haney :  •'The  Manual  Arts  in  Elementary  Schools,"  "The  Relation  of  the 
Manual  Arts  to  the  Curriculum,"  "Supervision  of  the  Manual  Arts," 
"The  Course  of  Study  in  the  Arts"  and  'The  Primary  Course  of  Study 
in  the  Arts."  Other  members  of  the  council  have  endeavored  to  make 
a  study  of  related  phases  of  work  in  their  particular  department.  Among 
these  we  find  "The  Manual  Training  Room  and  Its  Equipment"  and 
"Woodworking  for  Country  Schools"  (Michael  W.  Murray);  "The 
Principles  of  Design"  and  "Constructive  Design"  (Ernest  Allen 
Batchelder)  ;  "Clay  Working  in  the  Schools,"  "Representation  in  Three 
Dimensions,"  "Centres  of  Interest  in  Hand  Work"  (Cheshire  Lowton 
Boone)  ;  "Graphic  Expression  in  Childhood,"  "Constructive  Work  in  the 
Primary  Grades,"  "'Some  Phases  of  Constructive  Work  in  the  Grammar 
Grades,"  "Design  in  the  Primary  Grades"  (Julia  C.  Cremins).  Other 
articles  have  appeared  as  follows:  "The  Supervisor  as  an  Influencer  of 
Public  Taste" ;  "Art  and  School  Festivals" :  "Upon  the  Teaching  of  De- 
sign" (James  Hall);  "Principles  of  Teaching  Constructive  Design"; 
"State  Supervision  in  Drawing" ;  "The  Professional  Schools  of  Paris" 
(Henry  T.  Bailey)  ;  "The  Relation  of  Art  Education  to  the  Pupils' 
Needs"  (Theodore  M.  Dillaway)  ;  "The  Meaning  and  Aim  of  Art  Edu- 
cation" (Alfred  Vance  Churchill)  ;  "The  Art  Department  of  the  Normal 
School"  (Elizabeth  H.  Perry)  ;  "Applied  Art  in  the  High  School  (Mabel 
E.  Stock)  ;  "Training  in  the  Arts  from  the  Standpoint  of  the  Grade 
Teacher"  (Annette  J.  Warner)  ;  "The  Manual  Arts  in  Extension 
Schools"  (Solon  P.  Davis)  ;  "The  Stereopticon  in  the  Art  Course."  "The 
High  School  Course  in  Drawing"  (Fred  H.  Daniels)  ;  "Normal  Course 
in  the  Manual  Arts,"  "The  Relation  of  Public  Schools  to  Museums  of 
Fine  Arts"  (Walter  Sargent)  ;  "The  Educational  Value  of  Japanese  Art" 
(Arthur  W.  Dow)  ;  "School  Room  Decoration"  (Frederic  Lynden 
Burnham")  ;  "Children's  Constructive  Instincts,"  "Relative  \'alues  in  Art 
Instruction"  (Ernest  B.  Kent)  ;  "The  Manual  Arts  in  Vacation  Schools" 
(Stanley  H.  Rood)  ;  "The  Teaching  of  Lettering,"  "The  Furnishing  of 
the  High  School  Drawing  Room"  (Harold  Haven  Brown)  ;  "Educa- 
tional Aspects  of  the  ^Manual  Arts"  (A'ictor  I.  Shinn)  ;  "The  Develop- 
ment of  School  Handicraft"  (Willis  B.  Anthony)  ;  "Toy  Making  as  a 
Form  of  Constructive  Work"   (Albert  W.  Garritt).      Each  year  there 


364  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

also  appears  an  annotated  bibliography  containing  an  exhaustive  catalog 
of  books  and  articles  on  the  manual  arts  which  have  been  published 
through  the  year.  This  bibliography  has  been  prepared  by  ]\liss  Louisa 
Pierce  for  several  years.  In  1907  another  member  of  the  Council, 
Miss  Lillian  Dearborn,  assisted  in  its  preparation.  It  may  be  of  interest 
to  add  that  the  Council's  "Year  Books"  have  found  their  way  not  only 
to  the  insular  possessions  of  the  United  States,  but  to  Europe,  x^ustralia. 
South  Africa  and  the  Far  East.  Of  the  seven  volumes  which  the  Council 
has  published,  the  first  and  second  are  now  out  of  print. 

Local  Organizations. 

There  are  several  State  organizations  formed  for  purposes  similar  to 
those  which  .govern  the  Eastern  and  Western  Associations.  These  asso- 
ciations hold  annual  meetings  where  papers  are  read  and  discussed,  and 
the  programs  are  made  out  on  the  same  general  lines  as  are  those  of  the 
larger  gatherings.  Among  these  State  associations  are  those  of  jMassa- 
chusetts,  Xew  York,  New  Jersey,  Illinois,  Louisiana  and  California. 

THE    MASSACHUSETTS    INDUSTRIAL    ART    ASSOCIATION. 

This  body  is  now  twenty-five  years  old.  Meetings  are  held  yearly, 
where  papers  pertaining  to  subjects  of  vital  importance  along  art  lines  are 
read  and  discussed. 

THE    teachers'    ART    CLUB   OF    NEW    HAVEN,    CONN. 

This  club  came  into  existence  in  1905,  having  for  its  object  the  ad- 
vancement of  its  members  in  power  of  artistic  expression  and  apprecia- 
tion and  the  promotion  of  higher  standards  of  art  education  in  the  public 
schools.  This  association  admits  all  teachers  of  Xew  Haven  to  its  mem- 
bership. 

The  executive  committee  of  this  organization  makes  arrangements 
for  the  formation  of  classes  in  drawing,  painting  and  design ;  it  selects 
the  instructors,  advertises  the  courses,  and  perfects  all  details  of  the  w^ork. 
The  same  committee  makes  out  the  programs  for  the  bi-monthly  meet- 
ings, at  which  lectures  and  addresses  are  given  on  topics  of  interest  in 
the  school  room.  There  follows  a  list  of  the  courses  given  during  the 
fall  term  of  1907:  Blackboard  illustration;  nature  wor^Un  water  color; 


% 


SOCIETIES  OF  ART  TEACHERS.  367 

nature  work  in  pencil  and  crayon;  the  use  of  flower  forms  in  design; 
constructive  work  for  intermediate  crrades.  Courses  similar  to  these  are 
given  each  school  term,  and  in  addition  a  series  of  round  table  confer- 
ences are  arranged  for  each  school  year.  The  round  table  discus- 
sions include  considerations  of  the  provisions  of  the  course  of  study  for 
the  particular  year  chosen.  Samples  of  the  best  work  produced  in  the 
grades  of  that  year  are  shown  from  time  to  time,  as  a  stimulus  to  a  higher 
order  of  work. 

HIGH    SCHOOL    DRAWING   TEACHERS*    ASSOCIATION,    NEW    YORK    CITY. 

The  meetings  of  this  association  are  held  four  times  a  year.  At 
these  meetings  practical  phases  of  art  work  in  the  high  schools  are 
considered.  Informal  talks  are  given  by  the  members  on  the  several  high 
school  art  subjects,  each  one  illustrated  by  pupils'  work ;  general  dis- 
cussion follows.  During  the  past  year  special  attention  has  been  given 
to  design  in  its  application  to  block  printing,  stenciling,  bookplates,  brass 
and  copper  work,  embroidery  and  bookbinding. 

SCHOOL   CRAFTS  CLUB,    NEW   YORK   CITY. 

This  is  an  association  of  men  who  are  engaged  in  teaching  the  arts 
of  drawing,  construction  and  design  in  public  and  private  elementary  and 
high  schools  in  New  York  and  vicinity.  The  meetings  occur  four  times 
a  year,  at  which  short  papers  are  read  dealing  with  the  problems  relating 
to  constructive  work  in  various  materials  and  other  topics  of  general  in- 
terest. These  papers  are  discussed.  pLxhibits  of  school  work  are  fre- 
quently shown. 

TEACHERS*   ART   CLUD,   NEW  YORK   CITY. 

This  club,  composed  of  supervisors  of  drawing  and  teachers  in  the 
public  schools,  was  organized  in  February.  1900,  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
moting the  interests  of  art  instruction  in  the  public  schools;  to  further 
the  culture  and  taste  of  its  members  along  ;esthetic  lines ;  and  to  cultivate 
among  them,  through  professional  and  social  intercourse,  a  mutual  sym- 
pathy and  aid. 

Under  the  auspices  of  the  Teachers'  Art  Club  public  meetings  have 
been  held  at  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art  and  at  the  hall  of  the 
Board  of  Education.      Some  of  the  recent  addresses  given  were  on  the 


368  ART  EDUCATION  !N  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

following  subjects:  "Figure  Composition  in  Design"  (Alphonse  Mucha)  ; 
"Japanese  Prints"  (J.  P.  Haney)  ;  "Some  Pictures  in  the  Metropolitan 
Museum  of  Art"  (A.  T.  Van  Laer)  ;  "Sculpture"  (Gutzon  Borglum)  ; 
"The  Technique  of  Painting"  (F.  de  Haven)  ;  "Rembrandt"  (F.  N. 
Levy). 

LOUISIANA   ART   TEACHERS'    ASSOCIATIOX,    Xg^V    ORLEANS,    LA. 

This  association  was  founded  in  1897,  and  the  active  members  new 
number  thirty.  The  club  is  doing  good  work  in  the  city  and  helping  in 
many  ways  the  art  side  of  school  work. 

Associations  Interested  in  Beautifying  School  Buildings. 

BOSTON    public    SCHOOL   ART   LEAGUE. 

This  society  deserves  mention,  though  no  longer  doing  active  work 
under  this  title,  because  it  was  one  of  the  first  societies  in  the  United 
States  to  realize  the  importance  of  artistic  decoration  in  the  public 
schools. 

The  work  began  in  Boston  in  1871  with  the  decdration  of  the  assem- 
bly hall  in  the  Girls'  High  .School.  In  18S3  the  Boston  School  Commit- 
tee asked  for  such  assistance  as  would  aid  toward  a  movement  in  line 
with  that  undertaken  by  the  English  committee  headed  by  John  Ruskin. 
In  ]\Iay,  1892.  by  the  energy  and  work  of  Ross  Turner,  the  Public  School 
Art  League  of  Boston  was  formed,  and  a  number  of  rooms  in  various 
school  buildings  were  decorated  with  appropriate  casts  and  photographs. 
The  Gilbert  Stuart  School  contains  many  notable  works  of  art  pur- 
chased through  the  endeavors  of  this  club.  The  art  committee  of  the 
Twentieth  Century  Club  of  Boston  is  still  carrying  on  good  work  in  keep- 
ing art  subjects  prominently  before  the  citizens  of  Boston  and  vicinity. 

CHICAGO    PUBLIC    SCHOOL    ART    SOCIETY. 

The  city  of  Chicago,  whose  rapid  growth  has  made  its  educational 
problems  somewhat  difficult,  is,  nevertheless,  doing  much  to  make  its 
school  buildings  and  school  grounds  attractive.  Many  citizens,  as  well 
as  teachers,  have  become  members  of  the  Chicago  Public  School  2\rt 
League,  which  was  founded  in  April,  1894. 


COMl'OSITION,    NORMAL    DEPARTMENT,    ART    INSTITUTE,    CHICAGO.    ILL. 


SOCIETIES  OF  ART   TEACHERS.  371 

Since  the  organization  of  this  society  pictures  and  casts  have  been 
placed  in  about  one  hundred  schools. 

Lecture  courses  and  art  talks  are  given  at  frequent  intervals  in  the 
school  buildings  to  teachers  and  pupils.  These  courses,  usually  illustrated 
by  stereopticon  views,  have  become  a  most  valuable  feature  of  the  so- 
ciety's work. 

Small  libraries  of  art  works  have  been  placed  in  some  of  the  schools, 
and  every  effort  is  made  to  supply  the  constantly  increasing  demand  for 
the  loan  of  pictures.  In  more  than  one  instance  the  loan  exhibition  has 
been  so  missed  by  the  school  after  its  removal  that  funds  have  been  raised 
to  secure  pictures  to  fill  the  void.  The  chief  work  of  this  society  during 
1907  was  the  collection  of  eighty  pictures  for  the  John  Worthy  School,  a 
reform  school  for  delinquents. 

PUBLIC    SCHOOL    ART    LEAGUES,    DENVER,    COLO. 

There  are  ten  of  these  leagues  in  the  various  school  districts  of  Den- 
ver, with  a  membership  of  about  one  thousand.  Their  object  is  to  deco- 
rate the  schools  with  works  of  art  and  to  encourage  an  interest  in  art 
matters. 

In  November,  1898,  the  Committee  on  Pictures  for  Public  Schools,  of 
the  Woman's  Art  Club  of  Denver  gave  an  entertainment,  and  presented 
one-half  of  the  net  returns  to  the  six  school  art  leagues  then  in  existence. 
Each  league  received  sixtj'-two  dollars  at  that  time,  to  be  spent  on  pic- 
tures and  casts.  Altogether  the  leagues  have  spent  eighteen  hundred 
dollars  in  decorating  the  schools  of  Denver.  Eighteen  rooms  have  been 
completed,  and  thirty  more  are  in  the  course  of  decoration. 

PUBLIC  SCHOOL  ART   SOCIETY,   EVANSTON,   ILL. 

Since  1901  the  art  committee  of  this  society  has  been  allowed  by  the 
school  authorities  to  supervise  the  color  schemes  for  all  the  new  build- 
ings and  to  select  the  colors  for  redecorating  the  older  schoolhouses.  The 
society  has  purchased  pictures  and  casts,  and  these  have  been  hung  with 
reference  to  space,  to  light,  and  to  color  surroundings.  A  carefully  con- 
sidered plan  for  hanging  baskets  of  flowers  and  for  placing  window  boxes 
has  been  carried  out  in  many  schools  where  before  have  appeared  ill 
assorted  and  unsightly  pots,  boxes    and   cans.      A  mural    decoration  by 


372  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Charles  Francis  Browne,  the  gift  of  Mrs.  Starkweather,  a  prominent  cit- 
izen of  Evanston,  is  soon  to  be  placed  in  the  Dewey  School. 

PUBLIC    EDUCATION   ASSOCIATION,    NEW   YORK    CITY. 

This  association,  interested  in  general  educational  problems,  has 
appointed  several  committees  to  study  school  conditions  and  to  assist  in 
beautifying  school  rooms.  These  committees  are  as  follows :  Committee 
on  school  decoration,  picture  circulation,  art  committee,  portfolio  com- 
mittee. 

During  1905  and  1906  the  art  committee,  under  the  chairmanship  of 
Mrs.  Lawrence  F.  Abbott,  spent  one  hundred  dollars  for  large  pictures 
and  casts  for  one  school.  Some  years  ago  Mrs.  John  L.  Wilkie  planned  a 
comprehensive  scheme  of  decoration  for  some  half  dozen  schools,  and  se- 
cured the  co-operation  of  Mr.  Felix  Warburg,  who  paid  for  the  decora- 
tions. During  1905-6  Mrs.  Wilkie  spent  one  thousand  dollars  on  five 
casts  and  one  hundred  and  two  large  framed  pictures  for  one  of  the  new 
school  buildings. 

PUBLIC   SCHOOL   ART   LEAGUE,    HOUSTON,    TEXAS. 

This  league  has  at  the  present  time  about  three  hundred  pictures  and 
casts  placed  in  the  schools ;  these  are  chiefly  reproductions  of  old  masters. 
Early  in  the  present  year  three  hundred  and  fifty  pictures  were  ordered, 
and  these  will  soon  be  hung.  A  folio  committee  provides  a  collection  of 
un framed  mounted  pictures,  which  are  taken  from  school  to  school,  re- 
maining in  each  for  a  period  of  one  month. 

PUBLIC   SCHOOL   ART  LEAGUE,    WORCESTER,    MASS. 

The  Worcester  Public  School  Art  League  was  organized  in  1895  by 
the  school  committee.  The  league  aims  to  encourage  more  extended  and 
more  artistic  decoration  of  school  rooms  and  also  aims  to  interest  the  peo- 
ple in  securing  more  artistic  surroundings  for  the  schools.  The  league 
acts  as  an  advisory  board  whenever  its  assistance  is  desired  by  teachers 
or  pupils.  Exhibitions  of  materials  suitable  for  decorating  the  school 
rooms  have  been  held,  and  talks  have  been  given  by  the  president  of  the 
league,  Mr.  Frank  H.  Darrah,  and  others;  these  lectures  have  been  illus- 


SOCIETIES  OF  ART  TEACHERS.  373 

trated  by  lantern  slides,  A  pamphlet  called  "School  Decoration"  has 
been  issued  by  the  league,  giving  suggestions  for  the  beautifying  of  school 
grounds  and  the  decoration  of  school  rooms.  To  interest  both  teachers 
and  pupils  in  making  their  school  grounds  more  beautiful,  prizes  have 
been  oflfered  by  the  league  for  the  greatest  improvement  in  the  appear- 
ance of  school  yards.  This  has  greatly  stimulated  the  schools  in  the 
planting  of  suitable  vines  and  shrubs  and  In  giving  the  grounds  more  in- 
telligent care. 


EDUCATIONAL  WORK  OF  THE  ART  MUSEUMS. 

By  Florence  N.  Levy. 

ART  museums  as  we  know  them  today  are  about  a  century  old  and  the 
public  schools,  as  they  exist  in  the  larger  cities  of  the  United  States, 
date  back  no  further.  Many  educators  scarcely  realize  that  any  con- 
nection exists  between  these  two  factors,  but  this  relation  is  coming  to 
pass.  Its  underlying  purpose  is  the  cultivation  of  an  appreciative  public, 
one  that  shall  demand  more  beauty  in  the  streets  and  more  attractiveness 
in  the  homes. 

To  many  the  term  "art  education"  implies  only  the  training  of  the 
artist ;  in  reality,  the  most  important  art  education  consists  in  cultivat- 
ing an  appreciative  public.  Talent  is  given  to  few,  and  genius  is  found 
in  a  still  smaller  number,  but  all  may  enjoy,  if  only  a  little  time  and  care 
are  given  to  the  cultivation  of  the  aesthetic  sense.  Limiting  the  present 
study  to  the  arts  that  appeal  through  the  sense  of  sight,  it  will  be  found 
that  America  has  produced  painters,  sculptors  and  architects  of  high  rank, 
but,  in  the  words  of  a  recent  lecturer,  "the  demand  does  not  equal  the 
supply." 

Comparatively  little  can  be  done  to  develop  the  aesthetic  sense  in  the 
adult,  but  if  the  children  of  today  are  given  the  proper  guidance  the  next 
generation  of  citizens  ought  to  be  truly  "cultivated"  in  the  sense  that 
President  Butler,  of  Columbia  University,  implied  when  he  said:  "We 
should  no  longer  think  of  applying  the  word  'cultivated'  to  a  man  or 
woman  who  has  no  aesthetic  sense,  no  feeling  for  the  beautiful,  no  appre- 
ciation for  the  sublime.  We  should  see  to  it  that  the  aesthetic  inheritance 
is  placed  side  by  side  with  the  scientific  and  the  literary  in  the  education 
of  the  human  child." 

Experts  differ  widely  as  to  the  functions  of  an  art  museum.  These 
may  be  briefly  stated  as:  i,  investigation;  2,  instruction;  3,  inspiration. 
In  the  first  the  material  is  arranged  chiefly  for  the  expert.     The  second 


376  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

makes  a  special  effort  to  help  the  artist,  the  collector,  and  the  "amateur," 
in  the  true  sense  of  that  abused  word.  The  South  Kensington  Museum 
in  London  is  one  of  the  best  in  this  class ;  in  addition  to  the  work  car- 
ried on  within  its  own  walls,  it  lends  exhibitions  to  some  three  hundred 
and  fifty  art  schools  and  ninety  county  museums. 

The  third  class  lays  special  stress  on  the  selection  of  choice  examples 
and  their  effective  display  for  the  benefit  of  the  public.  The  Manchester, 
England,  Art  Museum,  in  carrying  out  a  policy  of  this  kind,  states  that 
"instead  of  satisfying  the  admiration  of  nature  and  love  of  art,  it  aims 
to  awaken  them."  What  is  known  as  the  "Boston  Idea"  in  museum 
management  belongs  to  this  class.  Its  purpose  has  been  described  in  the 
"Burlington  Magazine"  of  April,  1906,  as  follows  :  "Only  the  finest  objects 
as  measured  in  the  scale  of  beauty  would  be  shown.  Reproductions  would 
be  barred,  both  on  account  of  their  inherent  defects  and  because  of  the 
confusion  they  produce  in  the  mind  of  the  untrained  visitor  when  they  are 
shown  side  by  side  with  originals.  Here  jesthetic  would  have  prefer- 
ence over  scholastic  considerations.  The  belief  is,  that  fine  objects  of 
art  convey  their  own  message,  and  should  be  enjoyed  without  fatigue  and 
the  confusion  arising  from  less  attractive  associations.  For  the  student 
tlicre  would  be  separate  rooms,  v.'ith  the  objects  well  classified  and  con- 
veniently arranged  and  with  special  facilities  for  study." 

The  first  public  conference  of  museum  officials  ever  held  in  (jermany, 
and  possibly  the  first  ever  held  in  Europe,  was  that  at  Mannheim  on  Sep- 
tember 21  and  22,  1903.  It  was  convened  by  the  Centralstelle  fiir 
Arbciter-\\'ohlfahrseinrichtungen,  an  organization  for  social  work  that 
has  headquarters  in  Berlin.  .\bout  two  hundred  people  attended,  of 
whom  over  fifty  were  practical  museum  officials  from  all  parts  of  Ger- 
many, with  half  a  dozen  from  Switzerland,  Austria,  and  England. 

The  object  of  the  conference  was  to  discuss  the  ways  by  which 
museums  could  bring  themselves  into  touch  with  the  working  classes. 
The  gradual  change  in  the  nature  of  museums  was  traced  by  Dr.  Jessen, 
of  Berlin,  who  dealt  with  museums  of  fine  and  applied  art.  In  Bremen, 
it  was  said,  visits  to  the  museum  were  obligatory  for  the  school  children, 
who  afterwards  were  made  to  write  essays  on  what  they  had  seen.  Dr. 
Wandollek,  on  behalf  of  Dr.  A.  B.  Meyer,  of  Dresden,  described  the 
efforts  of  the  American  museums  in  the  direction  of  bringing  art  to  the 
service  of  all,  especially  as  regards  children.      "American  citizens  now 


EDUCATIONAL  WORK  OF  ART  MUSEUMS.  377 

demand  that  the  museums  make  themselves  useful  in  as  many  ways  as 
possible  and  continually  provide  incentive  to  observation  and  studv.'" 

Dr.  Leisching,  of  Vienna,  told  of  the  establishment  by  the  Austrian 
Government  of  a  circulating  museum  department  which  sent  art  collec- 
tions to  towns  that  had  no  permanent  museum  and  arranged  for  lectures 
on  these  exhibitions  by  teachers  at  the  high  schools. 

Professor  Grosse,  Director  of  the  An  Museum  at  Freiburg,  pointed 
out  very  clearly  that  one  should  not  confuse  the  scientific  study  of  art 
with  the  faculty  of  appreciating  beautiful  works  of  art,  which  latter  was 
the  need  of  the  lay  public.  Dr.  Schmid,  of  the  Bavarian  National 
Museum,  urged  the  value  of  the  small  local  museum  for  the  encourage- 
ment of  an  art  connected  with  the  life  of  the  people.  Dr.  Kautsch 
(Halle  a-S.)  spoke  on  guides  to,  and  lectures  in,  art  museums.  "The 
aim  of  these  should  not  be,"  he  said,  "to  give  a  diluted  histon,'  of  art, 
but  to  teach  people  to  see;  not  to  instill  theories,  but  to  evoke  a  concep- 
tion of  form ;  to  create  artists  and  artistic  craftsmen,  not  to  stifle  the 
artistic  faculty  under  the  weight  of  learning  that  oppresses  our  so  called 
cultural  class.'" 

The  American  Association  of  Museums  was  organized  at  a  meeting 
held  in  Xew  York  at  the  Museum  of  Natural  History  on  May  15,  1006. 
The  membership  includes  a  preponderance  of  scientific  museums,  but  the 
director  of  the  Art  Institute  of  Chicago,  William  M.  R.  French,  was 
elected  president  in  June,  1907.  It  is  understood  that  a  chapter  of  art 
museums  will  be  formed. 

Only  a  few  articles  on  general  matters  of  museum  policy  have 
appeared  in  the  current  American  magazines,  and  these  have  scarcely 
touched  on  the  art  museums.  The  United  States  National  Museum's 
annual  reports  contain  many  valuable  documents,  but  here  also  art  has 
been  almost  neglected,  and  it  is  only  witlim  the  past  two  years  that  the 
existence  of  a  National  Gallery  of  Art  has  been  recognized  as  a  part  of 
the  National  Museum.  Reference  must  be  made,  however,  to  two  impor- 
tant articles  on  art  museum  management  that  have  been  widely  quoted, 
namely,  those  by  Edward  S.  Morse  and  George  Brown  Goode. 

The  first  public  discussion  in  this  country  on  the  "Methods  of  Using 
Art  Museums"  consisted  of  a  series  of  short  articles  in  the  "Art  Bulletin" 

'These    "Studies    of    the    Museums    and  Kindred    Institutions,"  by   Dr.   A.    B.    Meyer,   were 
published  in  the   Report  of  the  United   States  National   Mustun'_  for   1903,  pp.  31J-608. 
-  "Museums   as    Places   of   Popular   Culture,"  in  "Science,"  Vol.  19,  1904,  p.  610. 


378  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

of  February  i6,  1907,  covering  the  following  topics:  "Art  Museums 
the  Fashion,"  by  Charles  de  Kay,  art  editor  New  York  Times ;  "The  Art 
Museums  and  the  Public  Schools,"  by  James  Parton  Haney,  Director  of 
Art  and  Manual  Training  for  the  Boroughs  of  Manhattan  and  the  Bronx, 
New  York  City ;  "Facilities  for  Students  at  the  Metropolitan  Museum" ; 
"Library  and  Class  Room,"  by  W.  M.  R.  French,  Director  of  the  Art 
Institute  of  Chicago;  "Sunday  Talks  at  the  Detroit  Museum";  "Trained 
Attendants  in  the  Art  Galleries,"  by  Walter  Scott  Perry,  Director  Depart- 
ment of  Fine  and  Applied  Art,  Pratt  Institute;  "Functions  of  the  Art 
Museum,"  by  Charles  M.  Kurtz,  Director  Albright  Art  Gallery,  Buffalo, 
N.  Y. ;  "Handbook  of  the  Boston  Museum  of  Fine  Arts"  ;  "Art  as  an  Aid 
in  the  Study  of  History,"  by  Mrs.  Annie  Nathan  Meyer;  and  "Boston's 
Committee  on  the  Utilization  of  Museums  of  Art  by  Schools  and  Col- 
leges." 

The  present  active  co-operation  between  the  art  museums  and  the 
public  schools  of  the  United  States  is  largely  due  to  the  initiative  of 
]M.  S.  Prichard,  at  one  time  assistant  director  of  the  Boston  Museum 
of  Fine  Arts  and  later  secretary  of  the  Committee  on  the  Utilization  of 
Museums  of  Art  by  Schools  and  Colleges.  In  an  article  on  "The  Aluseum 
and  the  Public  School,"  in  the  "Burlington  Magazine"  of  March,  1907,  Mr. 
Prichard  makes  the  following  statement :  "It  is  a  common  observation  of 
those  who  are  engaged  in  museum  work  and  those  whose  studies  have  led 
them  into  public  galleries,  that  few  visitors  understand  the  objects  they 
see  there.  *  *  *  The  figures  of  the  turnstiles  testify  to  the  desire  of 
the  public  to  see  and  understand,  not  to  satisfaction  experienced.  How- 
ever serious  may  be  the  task  of  making  museums  more  profitable  to  the 
men  and  women  of  today — and  that  was  the  problem  discussed  at  the 
^lannheim  conference  in  1903 — is  it  out  of  the  question  to  render  the 
experience  of  their  successors  more  fruitful?  To  approach  them  while 
still  at  school,  to  introduce  pupils  to  the  museums  of  art,  to  suggest  the 
meaning  of  the  creations  of  artists,  is  this  an  impossible  or  fruitless  task? 
In  this  way  may  we  not  prepare  the  eyes  of  the  next  generation  and  train 
it  for  independent  observation  ?" 

Mr.  Prichard  goes  on  to  describe  how  this  result  may  be  obtained. 
"The  direct  methods — those  in  which  reliance  is  placed  on  original  works 
of  art,  as  far  as  may  be — are  three.  The  first  consists  of  lectures  in  the 
museum?,  either    formal    courses    or    informal,  peripatetic    conversations 


COSTUME   DESIGN,    SCHOOL  OF  DESIGN   FOR   WOMEN,   PHILADEL  "H  lA.    PA. 


EDUCATIONAL  WORK  OF  ART  MUSEUMS.  381 

to  small  bodies  of  students,  where  the  aim  is  to  awaken  or  stimulate  atten- 
tion rather  than  to  teach.  *  *  *  Second,  'docents,'  or  trained  guides, 
may  be  maintained  in  a  gallery  to  explain  its  treasures  to  visitors;  they 
may  also  speak  in  schools  and  explain  their  remarks  by  showing  the 
originals  in  the  museum  when  the  classes  visit  it."  This  decent  system 
has  been  established  at  the  Boston  Museum. 

"The  third  direct  method  is  the  traveling  exhibit.  This  carries  the 
museum  to  the  school  instead  of  bringing  the  school  to  the  museum.  The 
system  of  lending  objects  to  provincial  museums  and  art  schools  is 
highly  organized  by  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum  in  London,  but 
those  favored  are  the  technical  schools.  The  proposal  here  would  be 
to  encourage  the  understanding  rather  than  the  creation  of  works  of 
art,  and  traveling  exhibitions  would  be  intended  for  the  ordinary  and 
not  the  special  school." 

In  the  United  States  several  State  art  societies  have  been  established 
for  the  purpose  of  sending  circular  exhibitions  to  towns  and  cities  that 
have  no  permanent  museums.  The  Utah  Art  Institute  was  established 
by  an  Act  of  the  Legislature  of  Utah  dated  March  9,  1899,  whereby  an 
annual  appropriation  of  one  thousand  dollars  was  provided  for  "a  munici- 
pal art  collection  that  may  be  loaned  to  different  parts  of  the  State ;  for 
an  annual  exhibition  of  both  the  fine  and  the  applied  arts,  not  to  be  held 
in  the  same  city  twice  in  succession ;  and  for  an  annual  prize  of  three 
hundred  dollars  for  the  best  paintmg  by  a  Utah  resident  artist."  The 
Minnesota  State  Art  Society  was  established  in  1903  by  an  Act  of  its 
State  Legislature  which  granted  an  appropriation  of  two  thousand  dollars 
a  year,  and  the  State  of  Washington  was  the  third  to  follow  this  plan. 

Of  the  indirect  modes  in  which  assistance  is  rendered  by  reproduc- 
tions of  works  of  art,  may  be  mentioned  the  issue  of  printed  lectures  with 
stereopticon  illustrations,  in  the  way  most  successfully  practised  by  the 
Musee  Pedagogique  in  Paris,  where  some  forty  thousand  lectures  with 
lantern  slides  are  sent  out  annually.  Small,  inexpensive,  but  good  photo- 
graphic reproductions  of  works  of  art  may  also  be  made  for  this  purpose. 

The  1907  "Year  Book"  of  the  Council  of  Supervisors  of  the  Manual 
Arts  has  a  chapter  on  "The  Relation  of  Public  Schools  to  Museums  of 
Fine  Arts,"  by  Walter  Sargent,  Supervisor  of  Drawing  and  Manual  Train- 
ing in  Boston.  "The  value  of  such  collections,"  he  says,  "should  be  esti- 
mated not  chiefly  by  the  comprehensiveness  of  the  catalog,  nor  by  the 


382  y4RT  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

money  that  has  been  expended,  but  rather  by  the  increase  of  aesthetic 
enjoyment  and  of  higher  standards  of  taste  which  a  museum  produces  in 
the  community.  In  reaHzing  this  vakie  the  community  as  well  as  the 
museum  has  a  part  to  perform.  A  high  degree  of  artistic  appreciation  is 
rarely  attained  without  definite  training  in  that  direction.  Educators  are 
coming  to  believe  also  that  the  number  of  people  in  whom  a  moderate 
amount  of  training  would  awaken  and  develop  sincere  aesthetic  appre- 
ciation is  probably  much  larger  than  has  generally  been  supposed,  and 
that  the  public  schools  may  find  in  the  opportunity  offered  by  museums,  a 
potent  factor  in  bringing  about  this  development." 

The  article  is  illustrated  with  reproductions  of  the  pages  of  a  chart 
on  "The  Masterpieces  of  Greek  Sculpture,"  originally  designed  by 
Henry  T.  Bailey.  These  embody  illustrations  of  objects  at  the  Boston 
Museum  selected  by  Miss  Anna  B.  Thompson,  instructor  of  history  at 
Thayer  Academy,  South  Braintree,  Mass.  They  show  not  only  the 
chronological  arrangement  of  works  of  sculpture,  but  the  chronological 
relation  of  these  to  the  temples.  The  works  are  grouped  not  only  by 
masters,  but  by  schools,  and  the  relation  of  one  school  to  another  is  indi- 
cated by  conventional  lines  and  relative  positions  of  the  examples. 

The  Work  of  Americax  Art  Museums. 

An  Oriental  saying  states  that  the  distance  between  the  ear  and  the 
eye  is  small,  but  the  difference  between  hearing  and  seeing  is  very  great. 
The  usual  public  school  methods  have  depended  entirely  on  the  child's 
learning  through  hearing.  Now  the  other  senses,  those  of  sight  and 
touch,  are  being  used,  and  impressions  made  upon  one  sense  are  rein- 
forced by  the  others.  The  museum  is  used  to  verify  the  facts  learned  in 
school. 

The  following  pages  will  show  what  the  American  art  museums  are 
doing,  and  can  do,  to  help  the  public  schools  to  use  their  collections  to 
the  best  advantage.  The  cities  are  treated  separately  and  are  arranged 
alphabetically : 

MUSEUM  OF  FIXE  ARTS.  BOSTON,   MASS. 

.Arthur  Fairbanks,  Director. 
The  first  museum  in  tiie  United  States  to  undertake  in  a  systematic 
way  to  make  its  collections  directly  available  to  the  public,  was  the  Boston 


APPLIED   DESIGN,  NORMAL  CLASS.   PRATT   INSTITUTE,   NEW   YORK    (BOROUGH    OF 
BROOKLYN),  N.   Y. 


EDUCATIONAL  WORK  OF  ART  MUSEUMS.  38S 

Museum  of  Fine  Arts.  Today  it  is  the  most  active  in  oflfering  to  teachers 
opportunities  to  become  acquainted  with  its  collections  and  to  make  them 
available  for  the  use  of  their  classes. 

In  1906  a  Committee  on  the  Utilization  of  Museums  of  Art  by 
Schools  and  Colleges  was  formed,  with  President  Eliot,  of  Harvard,  as 
chairman,  and  M.  S.  Prichard  as  secretary.  This  committee  was 
the  outgrowth  of  work  begun  some  six  rears  before.  A  course  of  six  lec- 
tures on  art  subjects  was  given  at  Huntington  Chambers  Hall  by  such 
well  known  authorities  as  Herbert  Langford  Warren,  George  San- 
tayana,  W.  P.  P.  Longfellow,  John  LaF'arge,  and  Walter  Sargent.  This 
course  was  planned  particularly  for  teachers  in  colleges  and  public 
schools,  but  the  lectures  were  open  to  all  on  payment  of  a  small  fee.  the 
desire  of  the  committee  being  to  encourage  a  wider  and  closer  acquaint- 
ance with  objects  of  art. 

Three  classes  were  held  at  the  Boston  jMuseum  of  Fine  Arts  under 
the  auspices  of  Simmons  College,  similar  in  character  to  those  'irranged 
by  the  college  during  the  past  three  years.  Each  course  consisted  of  ten 
lectures,  that  on  "Greek  Art"  being  given  by  Sidney  N.  Deane,  Assistant 
Curator  of  the  Department  of  Classical  Art  at  the  Museum ;  "Sculpture 
of  the  Italian  Renaissance,"  by  John  O.  Sumner,  Associate  Professor  of 
History  at  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology ;  "Painting,"  by 
Alicia  M.  Keys,  whose  talks  treated  of  ten  pictures  by  ten  different  artists, 
each  considered  in  its  artistic  and  historic  relation.  These  lectures  had 
the  great  advantage  of  illustration  by  means  of  objects  selected  from 
among  the  finest  of  the  ^Museum's  possessions,  objects  impossible  to  use 
in  a  lecture  room  outside  the  museum  building. 

It  was  later  found  advisable  that  the  Museum  establish  its  own 
Advisory  Committee  on  Education,  "to  consider  plans  for  lectures,  con- 
ferences, publications  and  any  other  means  by  which  the  objects  in  the 
Museum  may  be  better  understood  and  more  fuli\-  appreciated  by  the 
public."  Accordingly,  at  the  annual  meeting  on  January  16,  1908,  Presi- 
dent Eliot  v»as  made  chairman  of  this  Committee  on  Education. 

The  report  of  Dr.  Fairbanks  on  this  educational  work  of  the  museum 
places  it  under  four  headings. 

I.  Lectures  on  the  history  of  art,  which  have  been  given  in  the 
Museum  for  nearlv  ten  vears,  although  not  under  the  direct  auspices  of 


386  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

the  Museum.  The  purpose  of  these  courses  has  been  to  shed  light  on  the 
collections  from  the  standpoint  of  the  general  history  of  art;  in  other 
words,  the  emphasis  has  been  laid  not  on  the  "history,"'  but  on  the  "art," 
as  exemplified  in  objects  in  the  collections.  Recently  the  lectures  have 
been  in  a  measure  subordinated  to  other  forms  of  exercises  designed  to 
stimulate  the  activity  of  those  who  take  the  courses.  These  are  fully 
explained  in  Miss  Keyes'  notes  on  her  methods.  More  than  half  the 
pupils  in  the  courses  have  been  teachers  in  Boston  and  vicinity. 

2.  Conferences  for  teachers  have  recently  been  organized  to  pro- 
mote acquaintance  with  the  Museum  and  to  develop  a  closer  connection 
with  the  schools.  The  aim  is  to  reach  teachers  of  history  and  literature 
as  well  as  teachers  of  art.  Recent  meetings  of  this  kind  were  those  held 
on  January  4,  1908,  when  Dr.  Denman  W.  Ross  gave  a  talk  on  "Tech- 
nical Training  and  Appreciation"  to  the  supervisors  and  teachers  of 
drawing  and  manual  training  in  Boston  and  the  neighborhood,  and  again 
when  on  January  24th  a  number  of  teachers  of  art  and  history  met  the 
director  in  the  picture  gallery.  A  loan  exhibition  of  Dutch  and  Flemish 
pictures  was  opened  on  this  occasion. 

3.  The  "docent"  system  v/as  inaugurated  in  1907.  This  consists  of 
the  free  privilege  of  intelligent  and  trained  companionship  through  the 
galleries  for  either  parties  or  individuals.  The  aim  is  to  bring  the  visitor 
into  intelligent  touch  with  the  objects  of  art.  The  docent  is  not  a  pro- 
fessional guide,  nor  yet  a  teacher,  but  he  aims  to  stimulate  an  appreciative 
interest  in  some  few  objects  on  the  part  of  each  visitor.  There  are  now 
four  doccnts,  who  give  more  or  less  time  to  this  work.  Appointments 
with  the  docents  may  be  made  at  the  door  or  by  letter.  From  October  i, 
1907,  to  the  end  of  the  year  the  services  of  two  docents  were  called  for 
by  four  hundred  and  thirty-seven  persons.  The  Public  Library  has 
arranged  for  regular  visits  by  parties  of  library  assistants,  and  the  Massa- 
chusetts Normal  Art  School  has  made  stated  engagements  for  its 
students. 

4.  Gallery  talks  have  been  inaugurated  during  the  winter  of  1908. 
These  consist  of  a  series  of  conferences  by  the  curators  and  others,  who 
speak  on  particular  objects  in  the  Museum.  The  first  one,  by  Sidney  N. 
Deane,  Assistant  Curator  of  Classical  Art,  on  the  "Marbles  of  the  Bart- 
lett  Collection,"  was  given  at  2.30  on  Thursday,  January  9th,  and  the 
demand  for  tickets  was  so  great  that  it  was  necessary  to  repeat  it  on  the 


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EDUCATIONAL  WORK  OF  ART  MUSEUMS.  389 

iTth  and  on  the   14th.      These  Thursday  conferences    have    become    a 
regular  feature. 

The  class  room,  inaugurated  in  1906,  is  fitted  with  a  lantern  and 
blackboard,  and  in  addition  to  its  being  used  by  staff  lecturers  for  the 
teachers'  courses,  it  may  be  used  by  outside  teachers  for  their  classes. 
These  teachers  have  been  assisted  in  preparing  exhibitions  here  of  objects 
in  various  parts  of  the  Museum  that  would  help  to  illustrate  their  subject. 
During  1907,  one  hundred  and  sixty-eight  lectures  were  given  in  the 
class  room  to  3,263  auditors. 

During  1906  the  Museum  lent  a  small  collection  of  art  objects  to 
Smith  College,  Northampton.  The  objects  included  chiefly  prints  and 
textiles  not  likely  to  be  needed  for  exhibition  in  the  near  future,  but  val- 
uable in  connection  with  the  teaching  of  the  fine  arts.  In  the  1906  report 
of  the  iNluseum  the  temporary  director,  J.  Randolph  Coolidge,  Jr., 
stated  in  this  connection :  "It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  loans  of  objects 
not  needed  for  exhibition  in  our  galleries,  to  educational  institutions  that 
will  cherish  and  use  the  objects  lent,  are  a  benefit  alike  to  the  borrower 
and  to  the  lender,  an  opportunity  of  service  to  a  more  distant  and  more 
receptive  public  than  this  Museum  can  expect  to  reach  in  any  other  way." 
The  Print  Collection  contains  a  number  of  duplicates,  a  list  of  which  is 
kept,  and  these  are  available  for  exchange  with  other  museums.  The 
library  contains  about  thirteen  thousand  books  and  pamphlets,  about 
twenty-five  thousand  photographs,  and  about  one  thousand  lantern  slides.. 
These  are  occasionally  lent  to  teachers  and  advanced  students. 

An  illustrated  handbook  of  three  hundred  and  twenty-three  pages 
with  four  hundred  illustrations  is  published  and  sold  for  fifty  cents.  It 
is  carefully  w^orked  out  on  the  principle  that  it  shall  assist  the  visitor  to 
see  the  objects  exhibited,  furnishing  him  only  such  information  as  helps 
toward  this  end.  Separate  sections,  sold  for  fifteen  cents  each,  are: 
Egyptian  Art,  Classical  Art,  Western  Art,  Pictures,  Various  Collections 
including  Textiles,  Chinese  and  Japanese  art.  A  "Bulletin"  is  published 
bi-monthly  by  the  Museum,  in  which  new  accessions  are  discussed.  Many 
of  the  objects  have  been  photographed,  and  the  5x7  inch  size  are  sold  for 
thirty-five  cents  each.  Half  tones  of  some  of  the  objects  have  been  pre- 
pared. 

While  little  is  done  directly  by  the  Museum  for  the  public  school 
pupils,  during  1907  the  record  of  free  tickets  for  educational  purposes 


390  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

shows  that  five  hundred  and  ninety-one  tickets  were  issued  to  teachers  in 
the  public  schools,  giving  admission  with  their  pupils ;  seven  hundred  and 
eighty  to  classes  for  use  by  any  pupil ;  nine  hundred  and  fifty-one  to  in- 
structors in  colleges  and  schools ;  eight  hundred  and  forty-five  to  special 
students,  and  seventy  to  classes  consisting  of  a  large  number  of  pupils. 

The  following  reports  indicate  the  way  in  which  the  Museum  is  being 
used  by  some  of  the  teachers: 

An  Experiment  in  the  Relation  of  High  School  Girls  to  the  Museum  of 

Fine  Arts,  in  1906. 

A  class  of  twelve  high  school  girls,  chosen  by  the  drawing  teachers 
of  twelve  high  schools,  met  me  six  times  at  the  [Museum.  This  was 
arranged  by  a  lady  desirous  of  deepening  the  relation  between  schools 
and  museums.  Only  one  picture  (chosen  for  beauty  that  would  escape 
an  untrained  eye)  was  studied  each  week.  These  pictures  were  by  dif- 
ferent artists,  in  order  that  a  broader  conception  of  ideals  and  methods  of 
painting  might  be  given. 

First  came  my  lecture,  illustrated  by  prints,  photographs,  textiles, 
and  books,  selected  by  me  and  sent  to  the  lecture  room  from  different 
departments.  Then  we  went  to  the  picture  itself  in  the  gallery,  and  made 
maps  of  its  composition  and  pencil  notes  of  its  color  relation,  in  silent, 
active  observation.  I  went  constantly  from  one  girl  to  another,  helping 
each  to  see  significant  parts,  and  not  unimportant  details,  deepening  their 
perceptions  by  the  more  concentrated  attention  involved  in  drawing. 

These  notes  I  took  away,  to  study  the  needs  of  the  pupils.  During 
the  week  each  one  made  a  color  sketch  from  memory.  This  the  pupil 
brought  to  compare  her  own  color  with  the  picture  before  the  next  lesson, 
which  insured  one  visit  to  the  picture  alone,  and  exercised  her  color  mem- 
(;ry.  ( )ne  color  seen  in  other  colors,  as  blue  in  shadowed  bricks,  or 
orange  in  green  trees,  was  studied  during  each  week  to  help  her  to  see 
relative  color. 

The  subjects  of  the  lessons  were  as  follows: 

I. — Rcinbraiidl.  "Portrait  of  His  Father."  His  power  of  translating 
prose  into  poetry,  his  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  sacrifice  of  color,  his  con- 
centration of  color  in  light,  were  shown.      For  illustrations  there  were 


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STUDIES    FROM    TEXTILES,    NORMAL    COURSE,  PPATT    INSTITUTE.    NEW    YORK     (BOROUGH    OF 

BROOKLYN),   N.   Y. 


EDUCATIONAL  WORK  OF  ART  MUSEUMS.  393 

rough  drawings  by  him  containing  the  essentials  of  pictures  desired  in 
these  maps. 

II. — Turner,  "Quilleboeuf."  Pervasive  color,  land  and  water  re- 
sponding to  changing  skies,  with  man  subordinated. 

Ill- — De  Hooghe,  "The  Interior."  The  light  intensified  by  shadowed 
colors,  compared  with  Rembrandt's  lighted  colors. 

l\'.— Velasquez,  "Don  Balthazar  Carlos  and  His  Dwarf."  His 
scheme  of  color  giving  each  detail  its  relative  importance  in  shadow  and  in 
light.  Illustrations — linen,  woolen,  velvet,  lace,  armor,  plumes — to  shew 
the  different  absorption  of  light  by  differer.t  materials. 

V. — Monet,  "Ravine  de  la  Crense:"  Lighted,  colored  atmosphere 
accented  by  subtle  tones,  not  single  colors.  Illustrated  by  i)hotographs, 
but  silk  tissues  and  Syrian  glass  are  better. 

VI. — Bartolo  di  Fredi,  "Assumption  of  the  Virgin."  Symbolic  color 
and  form,  hierarchical  arrangement.  Illustrated  by  missals  and  Arundel 
prints. 

These  six  hours  were  aimed  to  give  that  concentrated  attention  which 
leads  to  insight ;  to  show  color  relations  in  the  girls'  own  world  as  well  as 
in  pictures ;  to  reveal  that  training  of  sight  comes  by  seeing  and  feeling 
and  thinking  in  silence,  without  the  distraction  of  words  which  can  only 
be  introductory;  to  give  standards  of  color  and  form  not  to  be  obtained 
from  reproductions.  As  memory,  observation,  and  imagination,  faculties 
exercised  by  artists  in  each  picture,  are  latent  in  the  observer,  they  can 
be  developed  in  him,  though  more  slowly. 

Alicia  M.  Keyes. 

Art  as  an  Aid  in  the  Study  of  History. 

Nowhere  can  such  a  correct  idea  of  ancient  life  be  gained  as  from 
the  unique  collections  of  terracotta  figurines  and  Greek  vases  in  the 
Museum.  One  class  produced  a  whole  series  of  scenes  in  the  life  of  a 
Greek,  from  the  cradle  to  the  grave,  from  these  original  sources.  The 
bronzes  again  bring  us  close  to  the  life  of  the  ancients,  and  we  learn 
how  artistically  beautiful  were  even  the  simplest  and  commonest  articles 
of  everyday  use — bowls  and  cups,  door  fastenings,  mirrors,  lamps,  and 
my  lady's  toilet  box  with  its  interesting  contents. 


394  ^RT  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Rtcently  one  of  our  pupils  wrote  an  interesting  account  of  her  "Visit 
to  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts"  for  our  school  paper,  mentioning  the  objects 
especially  interesting  to  students  of  ancient  history,  and  illustrating  it 
with  a  plan  of  the  galleries,  which  will  serve  as  a  guide  to  newcomers 
who  do  not  know  just  what  to  look  for, 

Florence  Eugenie  Leadbf:tter. 

West  F<.oxbury  High  School. 

I  send  the  pupils  in  wdth  written  directions,  asking  them  on  their 
first  visit  to  examine,  not  the  whole  of  the  first  Greek  room,  but  repro- 
ductions of  the  lions  over  the  Gate  of  Alycenae,  the  fragments  from  the 
"Treasuries  of  Atreus  and  Minyas,"  and  contents  of  the  showcase  con- 
taining the  Mycenaean  cups,  etc.  They  draw  half  a  dozen  objects.  This 
is  in  place  of  a  regular  history  lesson,  so  they  hand  in  a  report  embody- 
ing their  observations  and  illustrations.  Then  this  work  is  taken  up 
at  the  ne.xt  recitation.  The  reports  I  have  just  received  show  me  that 
several  of  my  poorest  pupils  can  observe  closely,  and  do  work  at  first 
hand,  if  they  cannot  "learn  from  the  book." 

Blanche  G.  Wetherbee. 

Brookline  High  School. 

It  is  upon  the  teaching  stafif  that  our  chief  efforts  have  been  con- 
centrated. For  the  purpose  of  making  them  acquainted  with  the 
Museum  collections  we  have  given  them,  three  times  a  year,  for  three 
successive  years,  illustrated  lectures  on  Egyptian  Art,  Greek  Vase  Paint- 
ing, Greek  Sculpture,  Japanese  Prints,  the  Textile  Collection,  Engravings 
and  Painting. 

The  ideal  plan,  now  being  put  in  operation,  would  be  for  the 
Museum  to  have  a  full  collection  of  lantern  slides  of  important  objects  in 
the  3,Iuseum.  These  slides  could  be  loaned  to  the  schools,  and  lectures 
could  be  given  at  the  schools  either  by  the  docent  or  the  art  instructor  of 
the  town.  Following  such  a  lecture  the  students  could  be  invited  to  visit 
the  Museum,  and  under  the  guidance  of  a  docent  study  the  objects  with 
which  they  had  already  become  familiar  through  the  slides. 

These  could  be  sketched  and  a  report  made  from  actual  observation 
of  the  object.      Such  reports  and  sketches — of  vases,  coins,  or  statues — 


X    . 
0-1 


if:  3 


3:2 


EDUCATIONAL  WORK  OF  ART  MUSEUMS.  397 

could  well  connect  with  the  student's  special  field  of  interest— literature, 
the  languages,  civics,  history,  manual  training    and  art. 

Irene  Weir. 

albright  art  gallery,  buffalo,  n.  y. 
Charles  M.  Kurtz,  Director. 

No  systematic  work  is  done  in  connection  witli  the  schools,  but  visits 
from  teachers  and  pupils  of  the  public  schools  are  encouraged,  and  the 
director,  or  his  assistant,  frequently  explains  certain  phases  of  art  as 
exemplified  by  the  collections.  There  is  an  auditorium  where  lectures  are 
given  from  time  to  time  by  instructors  of  the  Art  School  and  others; 
the  director  lectures  occasionally  to  clubs  and  other  organizations. 
"Academy  Notes"  is  published  monthly  ami  gives  information  regarding 
new  acquisitions  and  the  frequent  current  exhibitions.  These  exemplify 
the  highest  grade  of  modern  art  in  all  its  various  phases. 

ART  INSTITUTE  OF  CHICAGO,  CHICAGO,   ILL. 

W.  M.  R.  French,  Director. 

The  Fullerton  Memorial  Hall,  seating  about  four  hundred  and 
seventy-five,  is  in  daily  use  for  lectures  by  the  instructors  of  the  Art 
School,  by  University  Extension  lecturers,  and  other  specialists.  These 
lectures  are  chiefly  for  the  benefit  of  the  students  in  the  Art  School  and 
for  the  members  of  the  Institute  and  their  families. 

All  the  public  school  teachers  of  Chicago,  six  thousand  or  more, 
hold  tickets  to  the  Art  Institute,  admitting  ihem  at  all  times.  Wednesday, 
Saturday  and  Sunday  are  free,  but  groups  of  pupils  from  the  public 
schools  or  other  schools,  with  their  teachers,  are  admitted  free  at  any 
time. 

The  Ryerson  Library  is  well  equip])ed,  and  contains  about  five  thou- 
sand books,  twenty  thousand  photographs,  and  some  five  thousand  lan- 
tern slides.  The  photographs  and  slides  are  occasionally  lent  to  teachers 
and  club&.  Under  the  library  is  the  library  class  room,  which  may  be  used 
by  classes  or  groups  at  any  time,  and  is  constantly  in  demand. 

There  are  no  official  lecturers  or  guides  on  the  staft.  but  guides  are 
often  furnished  for  groups  of  people  in  the  galleries.      These  are  occa- 


398  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

sionally  furnished  free :  sometimes  they  are  paid  for.  Some  of  the  Art 
School  lecturers  take  their  audiences  through  the  galleries  from  time  to 
time,  and  the  Municipal  Art  League  has  a  monthly  gallery  tour.  None 
of  these,  however,  are  planned  with  special  regard  to  the  needs  of  the 
public  school  teacher. 

MUSEUM  OF  ART,  DETROIT,   MICH. 

A.  H.  Griffith,  Director. 

The  special  feature  consists  of  the  Sunday  talks  on  art,  travel,  and 
kindred  topics  given  by  the  director  at  2 :30  throughout  the  season  in  the 
well  appointed  auditorium.  They  are  usually  crowded  and  often  over- 
flow into  the  galleries.  The  talks  are  the  outgrowth  of  a  passing  remark 
made  by  the  director  some  years  ago  to  a  group  of  children  who  gathered 
around  him  in  one  of  the  galleries  and  begged  for  information.  This 
lecture  hall,  opened  in  1905,  may  be  used  free,  for  anything  of  an  educa- 
tional character.  When  the  director  is  notified  in  advance,  short  talks 
are  given  to  teachers,  classes,  and  clubs,  either  in  the  galleries  or  in  the 
auditorium.  On  request,  the  director  or  his  assistant  will  visit  schools  or 
clubs  and  give  a  short  talk. 

The  gallery  attendants  are  given  every  opportunity  to  secure  informa- 
tion about  their  departments,  and  they  serve  as  guides  for  visitors  in  the 
galleries.  Exhibits,  books,  photographs  and  lantern  slides  are  lent  to 
schools  and  study  clubs,  under  certain  conditions.  Every  possible  assist- 
ance is  given  to  the  public  school  teachers,  and  the  public  school  children 
are  welcome  visitors,  to  whom  the  director  devotes  much  of  his  time. 

JOHN    HERRON    ART    INSTITUTE,    INDIANAPOLIS,    IND. 

William  H.  Fox,  Director. 

Although  the  !\Iuseum  was  only  dedicated  in  November,  1906,  a 
broad  policy  has  been  adopted  toward  the  pupils  of  the  public  schools. 
Lectures  are  arranged  for  them,  and  the  children  are  encouraged  to  come 
to  the  !\Iuseum. 

There  are  about  one  hundred  books,  and  these  will  be  lent  to  teachers 
and  studv  clubs. 


EDUCATIONAL  WORK  OF  ART  MUSEUMS. 


401 


LAYTON  ART  GALLERY,  MILWAUKEE,  WIS. 

George  Raab,  Curator. 

Public  school  classes  come  to  the  gallery  with  their  teachers,  and  a 
lecture,  suitable  to  their  understanding,  is  given  them  by  the  curator. 

BROOKLYN    INSTITUTE   OF   ARTS    AND    SCIENCES, 
NEW  YORK  (nOROUGH  OF  BROOKLYN),  N.  Y. 

William  H.  Goodyear,  Curator  of  Fine  Arts. 

Many  courses  of  lectures  that  are  of  special  value  to  teachers  are 
given  by  the  Institute  in  the  heart  of  Brooklyn,  and,  in  addition,  the 
Museum,  situated  on  the  Eastern  Parkv/ay,  has  an  auditorium  accommo- 
dating some  twelve  hundred  hearers.  Three  courses  of  special  value  were 
given  during  the  season  of  1907-1908,  namely,  ten  lectures  on  "Italian 
Painting"  by  Miss  Harriette  H.  Winslow,  illustrated  by  picture  note 
books  arranged  by  the  students,  besides  the  usual  stereopticon  views; 
twenty  lectures  on  ''Art  Appreciation"  by  Dr.  Daniel  A.  Huebsch;  and 
four  lectures  on  "French  Painting"  by  Mr.  A.  D.  Savage. 

In  the  art  gallery  the  system  of  labeling  is  specially  worthy  of  note, 
being  uruisiially  full  and  explicit.  There  are  nine  hundred  and  ten  volumes 
in  the  art  department  of  the  library,  between  four  and  five  thousand  pho- 
tographs, and  about  three  thousand  lantern  slides.  These  are  not  loaned. 
In  some  of  the  galleries  will  be  found,  attached  to  a  desk,  certain  books 
referring  to  that  particular  collection. 

COOPER   UNION    MUSEUM   FOR  THE   ARTS  OF   DECORATION, 
NEW  YORK    (borough  OF  MANHATTAN),  N.  Y. 

Sarah  Cooper  Hewitt,  Chairman  Committee  of  Management. 

The  feature  of  this  Museum  is  its  collection  of  encyclopaedic  Scrap 
Books.  Over  fifty  are  now  available  and  material  is  on  hand  for  nearly 
two  hundred  more,  which  are  being  mounted  as  rapidly  as  possible.  They 
include  such  subjects  as  animals,  architecture,  arms,  binding,  costumes, 
decorations  for  fetes,  furniture,  lighting,  etc.  The  subdivisions  are  very 
full,  as,  for  instance,  under  "Lighting,"  candlesticks,  candelabra,  lanterns, 
lamps,  lustres,  sconces,  snuffers,  torches. 

Special  facilities  are  afforded  to  teachers  with  classes.     Objects  will 


402  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

be  taken  from  their  cases  and  arranged  for  a  particular  talk.     All  objects 
may  be  copied  or  traced. 

Some  schools  make  visits  to  the  Cooper  Union  iMuseum  a  regular 
part  of  their  work,  the  Manhattan  Trade  School  for  Girls  having  a  class 
every  Tuesday  morning.  The  Cooper  Union  Free  Art  Classes  are  held 
in  the  same  building,  and  use  the  Museum  both  day  and  evening. 

METROPOLITAN    MUSEUM.  OF    ART, 
NEW  YORK    (borough  OF  MANHATTAN),   N.   Y. 

Sir  Caspar  Purdon  Clarke,  Director. 
H.  W.  Kent,  Assistant  Secretary,  in  Charge  of  Educational  Work. 

The  official  report  from  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art  states  that 
arrangements  have  recently  been  made  for  active  co-operation  with  the 
public  schools  of  New  York  City  by  means  of  which  its  collections  may 
be  made  of  practical  use  in  the  teaching  of  art,  history,  and  literature,  as 
covered  in  the  public  school  curricula. 

The  general  facilities  for  study  afforded  by  the  Metropolitan 
]\Iuseum,  in  common  with  other  institutions  of  the  kind,  include  its 
arrangement  of  exhibits,  its  "information  desks,"  its  printed  material,  and 
the  assistance  which  may  be  given  by  the  persons  stationed  throughout  the 
building.  In  addition,  special  written  information  is  given  at  any  time 
to  teachers  who  designate  in  advance  the  work  which  they  wish  to 
illustrate. 

A  class  room,  with  seating  capacity  of  two  hundred,  and  containing 
apparatus  for  stereopticon  exhibition,  has  been  set  aside  for  the  use  of 
teachers  with  pupils,  and  may  be  secured  at  any  time  during  Museum 
hours,  when  due  notice  has  been  given  in  order  to  prevent  conflicting 
visits.  Photographs  and  lantern  slides  from  the  collections  of  the 
Museum  are  sent  to  the  class  room  when  desired,  and  assistance  in  select- 
ing those  which  will  be  of  use  in  the  ground  to  be  covered  by  the  teacher's 
lecture  is  gladly  given.  When  the  visits  of  teachers  or  pupils  fall  on  "pay 
days""  j^rovision  is  made  for  their  admission  without  charge. 

Direct  intercourse  between  the  Museum  and  the  teachers  is  had 
from  tmie  to  time,  and  during  the  season  lectures  on  special  subjects  are 
given  \)\  members  of  the  ^Museum  staft'. 

For  individual  study,  the  reference  library  of  the  Museum  is  open 


EDUCATIONAL  WORK  OF  ART  MUSEUMS.  APS 

during  regular  hours.  The  material  here  comprises  about  fourteen  thou- 
sand SIX  hundred  volumes  of  works  on  art  and  archaeology ;  from  seven- 
teen thousand  to  eighteen  thousand  photographs  illustrating  the  history 
of  painting  and  many  important  subjects  in  sculpture,  architecture,  indus- 
trial arts,  etc. ;  and  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  lantern  slides  illustrating 
paintings  and  other  objects  of  art  in  foreign  museums,  as  well  as  those 
belonging  to  the  Metropolitan  Museum. 

Photographs  of  ISIuseum  objects  can  be  secured  at  a  price  of  from 
five  cents  upward.  These  range  in  size  from  2x3  to  19x28  inches,  and 
include  all  objects  received  since  April,  1906,  and  a  large  number  of  those 
of  earlier  accession.  As  rapidly  as  possible  the  whole  collection  is  being 
photographed.  Half  tone  engravings  and  post  cards  representing  certain 
paintings  in  the  Museum  are  also  on  sale. 

During  1907  the  New  York  State  Education  Department  photo- 
graphed a  number  of  the  paintings  and  sculpture  at  the  Metropolitan 
Museum.  Photographs  and  lantern  slides  of  these  and  many  other  sub- 
jects may  be  borrowed  from  the  division  of  visual  instruction  of  the 
New  York  State  Education  Department  at  Albany  by  any  school,  insti- 
tution, or  study  club  in  the  State  of  New  York  which  is  under  the  juris- 
diction of  the  department  or  registered  with  the  regents  of  the  State 
University.  Hand  photographs  and  lantern  slides  are  lent  at  the  rate  of 
one  dollar  for  one  hundred  for  a  period  of  two  weeks ;  wall  pictures  are 
lent  at  the  rate  of  fifty  cents  a  year  for  each  picture. 

Besides  the  regular  catalogues,  a  little  printed  circular  of  recent  issue 
is  of  special  use  to  teachers.  This  circular  gives  an  index  to  the  collec- 
tions, a  mention  of  points  of  unusual  interest  in  the  building,  and  a  brief 
account  of  the  matters  in  which  visiting  students  are  generally  interested. 
A  monthly  "Bulletin"  is  published,  giving  descriptions  of  recent  acces- 
sions. 

Many  organizations  have  been  given  facilities  in  using  the  Metropol- 
itan Museum.  Among  these,  the  Teachers'  Art  Club,  composed  of  the 
departmental  teachers  of  art  in  the  boroughs  of  Manhattan  and  the 
Bronx,  held  a  meeting  in  one  of  the  galleries  in  the  spring  of  1907,  and 
four  meetings  of  this  club  were  held  in  the  class  room  of  the  Museum 
in  the  spring  of  1908.  The  High  School  History  Teachers  have  had  sev- 
eral meetings,  when  addresses  were  made  by  the  Assistant  Direct<jr, 
Edward  Robinson. 


4o6  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Photographs  of  objects  at  the  Metropolitan  Museum  have  been  lent 
to  public  schools  through  the  Art  Extension  Committee.  During  the 
special  exhibition  at  the  Museum,  of  sculpture  by  the  late  Augustus  Saint 
Gaudens,  the  group  consisted  of  thirty  photographs,  half  being  the  work 
of  Saint  Gaudens,  and  the  balance  representing  sculpture  by  other  Amer- 
ican artists  in  the  Museum's  permanent  collection. 

THE  PENNSYLVANIA   MUSEUM  AND  SCHOOL  OF  INDUSTRIAL  ART, 
PHILADELPHIA,    PA. 

Edwin  A.  Barber,  Director  of  Museum. 

Through  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  the  Museum  has 
extended  an  invitation  to  the  school  teachers  of  Philadelphia  to  make  use 
of  the  exhibits  for  lectures  or  other  practical  study.  Conferences  are 
held  in  the  galleries,  as  there  is  no  auditorium  or  lecture  room.  Further 
steps  looking  toward  the  co-operation  between  the  Museum  and  the 
schools  are  under  consideration. 

The  Museum  building  is  situated  in  Fairmount  Park,  some  distance 
from  the  centre  of  the  city.  It  was  the  first  Museum  to  publish  a  quarterly 
"Bulletin,"  and  in  each  number  special  stress  is  laid  on  the  description  of 
one  department.  Art  Primers  have  also  been  published  dealing  with  the 
following  subjects:  "Tin  Enameled  Pottery,"  "Salt  Glazed  Stoneware,"^ 
"Artificial  Soft  Paste  Porcelain,"  and  "Lead  Glazed  Pottery."  An  illus- 
trated handbook  has  been  published,  and  is  sold  for  twenty-five  cents. 
^Ivs.  C.  Stevenson  has  recently  been  appointed  assistant  curator,  and  will 
on  certain  days  be  present  to  furnish  information  and  conduct  parties 
through  the  iMuseum. 

CARNEGIE   INSTITUTE,   PITTSBURG,   PA. 

John  \\\  Beatty,  Director  of  Fine  Arts. 
The  public  school  work  carried  on  in  Pittsburg  is  different  from  that 
done  elsewhere.  It  was  begun  in  iqoi  in  response  to  an  invitation  pre- 
sented by  a  committee  of  principals  and  teachers  of  the  academic  and 
normal  departments  of  the  Pittsburg  High  Schools.  On  September  20th, 
1902,  a  set  of  platinum  prints  of  the  permanent  collection  of  paintings 
was  placed  in  charge  of  Mrs.  M.  E.  Van  Wagonen,  Supervisor  of  Art  in 
the  Public  Schools,  for  circulation  and  study  in  the  schools.  The  set  con- 
sisted of  reproductions  of  the  Institute's  forty-six  paintings,  of  various 


EDUCATIONAL  WORK  OF  ART  MUSEUMS.  409 

sizes,  uniformly  mounted  and  framed,  and  sufficiently  large  to  give  details. 
During  the  initial  year  the  collection  was  exhibited  and  studied  at  the 
Fifth  Avenue  High  School,  Belt.rhoover,  Allen,  St.  Clair  district,  Hum- 
boldt, Morse,  and  Wickersham  schools.  Through  this  systematic  circula- 
tion of  photographs  representing  the  Institute's  permanent  collection  of 
paintings,  many  people  living  in  the  outlying  city  wards  learned  of  the 
Institute's  art  collections,  and,  by  the  interest  thus  created,  were  attracted 
to  the  Institute  and  its  work.  A  request  was  received  in  1903  from 
Mary  S.  Garretson,  Supervisor  of  Drawing  in  the  Allegheny  Schools,  for 
a  collection  of  the  photographs,  and  in  response  thereto  a  new  set  was 
prepared,  which  is  now  in  circulation.  Sets  of  the  photographs  or  single 
prints  are  furnished  to  schools  desiring  them,  at  the  actual  cost  of  print- 
ing and  mounting. 

A  list  of  the  classes  from  the  Pittsburg  High  Schools  that  visited 
the  galleries  during  the  period  of  the  eighth  annual  exhibition  (1903), 
and  to  whom  informal  lectures  were  given  on  the  paintings,  shows  that 
fifty  teachers  were  present  and  were  accompanied  by  one  thousand  and 
ninety-one  students. 

In  1905  a  series  of  informal  lectures  was  organized.  These  discus- 
sions upon  art  were  given  before  all  the  instructors  in  the  Department  of 
Art  in  the  Public  Schools,  and  also  before  a  more  general  group  compris- 
ing all  the  teachers  of  the  ward  schools  of  the  two  cities. 

PORTLAND  ART  ASSOCIATION^   PORTLAND,   ORE. 

Henrietta  H.  Failing,  Curator. 
Co-operation  with  public  schools,  popular  talks  upon  the  exhibitions 
and  collections,  and  efforts  to  awaken  an  intelligent  public  interest  have 
been  the  purpose  of  the  Museum  from  the  first.  A  Teachers'  Club  meets 
alternate  Saturday  evenings  during  the  winter.  Four  clubs  are  using  the 
class  room,  and  it  can  be  secured  for  use  by  any  group. 

ART    ASSOCIATION    OF    RICHMOND,    RICHMOND,    IND. 

Mrs.  M.  F.  Johnston,  President. 

Although  not  a  museum,  no  account  of  the  art  activities  of  the  United 

States  in  connection  with  the  public  schools  would  be  complete  without 

some  reference  to  the  fact  that  the  An  Association  of  Richmond  holds  its 

annual  exhibition  of  paintings  by  prominent  American  artists  in  the  High 


410  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

School  building.  It  is  always  held  in  June,  and  is  considered  by  the  chil- 
dren as  one  of  the  events  of  the  year.  The  Town  Council  appropriates 
one  hundred  dollars  each  year  for  expenses.  With  the  Reid  Purchase 
Fund  of  five  hundred  dollars  a  year,  a  painting  is  purchased,  and  this 
permanent  collection  remains  in  the  school  at  present.  Other  schools  in 
the  city  purchase  pictures,  the  selection  depending  on  the  votes  of  the 
children. 


ST.    LOUIS    MUSEUM   AND   SCHOOL  OF   FINE  ARTS,   ST.    LOUIS,    MO. 

Halsey  C.  Ives,  Director. 

Particular  attention  is  paid  to  the  courses  of  lectures.  The  Monday 
afternoon  course  is  specially  adapted  to  be  of  value  to  teachers ;  the 
Tuesday  one  is  for  the  public,  including  pupils  of  the  public  schools.  The 
whole  instruction,  however,  is  based  on  the  needs  of  the  pupils  of  their 
own  Art  School  and  of  the  members  of  the  Museum.  There  are  two 
lecture  halls. 

The  director  and  members  of  the  school  staff  lecture  frequently  be- 
fore clubs  and  other  organizations.  The  use  of  the  reading  room  is  free 
at  all  times  to  teachers.  There  are  about  three  thousand  five  hundred 
volumes,  five  thousand  photographs  and  three  thousand  lantern  slides. 
The  photographs  are  lent  on  payment  of  transportation  charges. 

SYRACUSE    MUSEUM    OF   FINE  ARTS,    SYRACUSE,    N,    Y, 

George  F.  Comfort,  Director. 

Principals  and  teachers  of  the  public  schools  are  especially  invited  to 
all  exhibitions.  A  feature  of  the  special  days  arranged  for  the  visits  of 
school  children  is  the  issuing  of  cards  for  them  to  vote  for  their  favorite 
picture,  thus  insuring  careful  study  and  comparison.  This  voting  is  made 
the  subject  of  class  discussions  and  class  essays. 

There  have  been  numerous  exhibitions  of  the  art  work  done  in 
schools.  In  April,  1906,  the  Syracuse  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  on  entering 
its  quarters  in  the  Public  Library  Building,  gave  an  exhibition  illustrating 
the  scope  and  methods  of  instruction  and  training  in  the  arts  as  given  in 


EDUCATIONAL  WORK  OF  ART  MUSEUMS.  413 

the  city  grammar  schools,  high  schools,  technical  schools,  the  College  of 
Fine  Arts,  and  the  College  of  Applied  Science  of  the  Syracuse  University. 
In  1907  a  second  exhibition  of  this  kind  was  held,  and  in  January,  1908, 
the  art  work  of  the  Rochester,  X.  Y.,  schools  was  shown. 

THE  TOLEDO  MUSEUM  OF  ART,  TOLEDO,  OHIO. 

The  most  important  work  of  the  Toledo  Museum  of  Art  is  its  co- 
operation with  the  public  schools.  If  its  collections  and  its  energies  were 
put  to  no  other  use,  this  branch  of  its  work  alone  would  be  ample  reason 
for  its  existence.  Very  few  of  the  members  have  any  adequate  idea  of 
what  their  annual  dues  are  making  possible  in  this  direction,  but,  never- 
theless, the  work  goes  on  quietly  and  systematically,  spreading  its  influ- 
ence to  every  far  corner  of  the  city  and  reaching  even  to  the  homes  of 
every  one  of  the  twenty-one  thousand  children  at  present  enrolled  in  the 
public  schools. 

Every  day  of  the  school  year,  shortly  after  two  o'clock,  a  little  band 
of  boys  and  girls  sets  out  from  some  school  accompanied  by  several 
teachers,  and  makes  its  way  towards  the  Museum,  where  there  is  to  be  a 
short  talk  for  children  at  three  o'clock  promptly.  These  talks  during  the 
season  of  1907-1908  have  been  principally  on  Egypt,  its  antiquities,  his- 
tory, customs  and  beliefs.  The  children  come  prepared,  and  questions 
put  to  every  group  each  day  before  the  talk,  bring  out  the  fact  that  they 
know  something  of  the  country,  its  location,  climate  and  history.  They 
are  gathered  to  learn  more,  to  see  real  things  fashioned  by  these  ancient 
people,  three  thousand  to  five  thousand  years  before  the  Christian  era. 
From  October  i,  1907,  to  February,  1908,  over  five  thousand  children 
have  listened  to  these  talks  in  groups  of  from  fifty  to  seventy-five  daily. 

The  season's  work  is  so  planned  that  no  two  classes  come  at  the 
same  time ;  thus  there  is  no  overcrowding  and  nothing  to  disturb  the 
attention  of  the  children.  Egypt  will  continue  to  be  the  general  topic, 
until  a  complete  round  of  the  schools  has  been  made,  after  w'hich  Greece 
will  be  taken  up. 

Another  phase  of  the  work  consists  of  special  talks.  For  instance,  if  a 
room  is  being  decorated  with  photographs  of  Greek  architecture  or  small 
cast  reproductions  of  Greek  or  Renaissance  sculpture,  it  is  desirable 
that  something  be  said  bearing    on    these    subjects    for   the  purpose  of 


414  ^RT  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

further  entertaining  the  children  in  these  classic  surroundings.  The 
young  ladies  of  the  Normal  School  have  taken  up  Greek,  Egyptian,  Dutch, 
French  and  Assyrian  history,  and  the  practice  department  of  the  Normal 
School  has  sent  its  classes  of  pupils,  nine  or  ten  years  of  age,  to  listen  to 
talks  in  the  Greek  Gallery. 

During  the  exhibit  of  American  water  colors/ five  morning  talks 
were  given  on  American  art  to  High  School  pupils.  Pupils  came  from 
the  public  schools,  and  from  private  and  parochial  schools.  There  were, 
in  addition,  talks  given  at  the  factories  at  the  noon  hour,  at  the  East  Side 
Y.  W.  C.  A.,  to  the  Business  Girls'  Club  at  the  Museum,  to  the  Federa- 
tion of  Women's  Club  Study  Classes,  to  the  Museum  Art  History  Study 
Classes,  and  to  study  clubs  from  Defiance,  Tifiin,  Findlay,  Bowling  Green, 
and  other  surrounding  towns. 

Every  spring  at  the  Toledo  Museum  there  has  been  held  an  exhibi- 
tion of  the  work  done  by  the  pupils  of  the  schools.  The  1908  exhibit  will 
be  the  most  important  of  the  kind  yet  held.  Every  child  in  the  city  will 
have  a  personal  interest  in  the  display,  for  every  one  of  the  twenty-one 
thousand  pupils  in  the  Toledo  schools  will  be  represented  by  at  least  one 
example  of  his  or  her  work.  During  the  exhibition  the  Museum  is  free 
to  everybody,  and  special  invitations  are  extended  to  all  parents,  school 
and  city  officials,  and  citizens  in  general. 

The  1908  exhibit  will  occupy  every  gallery  in  the  building.  It  will 
consist  of  the  manual  training  work,  drawing,  designing,  dressmaking, 
domestic  science,  and  plans  for  houses  and  interior  arrangements.  Every 
one  of  the  twenty-one  thousand  children  in  the  ward  schools  of  Toledo  has 
received  notice  that  his  or  her  best  work  will  be  exhibited  in  the*  Museum 
of  Art.  This  incentive  to  serious  study  is  invaluable,  as  the  exhibits  shown 
at  the  Museum  for  the  past  few  years  have  proven.  The  children  have  taken 
much  pride  in  exhibiting  their  work  They  have  all  visited  the  Museum 
during  the  school  year,  and  this  coming  exhibition,  which  is  to  be  their 
own,  nill  give  them  added  feeling  of  pride  and  interest  in  the  institution. 

The  Toledo  Museum  has  no  endowment,  and  its  entire  annual  in- 
come is  not  over  seven  thousand  dollars.  The  success  of  this  Museum  is 
vine  entirely  to  the  energy  and  enthusiasm  of  the  Director  and  Assistant 
Director,  Mr.  and  ]\Irs.  Stevens.  Most  of  the  foregoing  report  is  taken 
from  the  Toledo  Museum  News  of  February,  1908. 


EDUCATIONAL  WORK  OF  ART  MUSEUMS.  417 

CORCORAN  GALLERY  OF  ART,  WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 

F.  B.  McGuire,  Director. 

Teachers  and  pupils,  when  coming  in  a  body,  are  always  admitted 
free  of  charge;  upon  request  full  information  is  given  with  critical  dis- 
cussion by  members  of  the  Art  School  staff. 

WORCESTER   ART    MUSEUM,    WORCESTER,    MASS 

Rev.  Austin  S.  Garver,  Chairman  Committee  on  Instruction. 

A  large  picture  gallery,  seating  about  one  hundred  and  fifty,  is  used 
for  the  series  of  lectures  given  annually  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Worcester  Art  Society.  Public  school  pupils  under  the  guidance  of  their 
teachers  are  admitted  free. 

CONCLUSION'. 

Leaving  out  of  the  question  the  relative  importance  of  the  collections 
of  the  various  art  museums  throughout  the  United  States,  their  activities 
in  extending  an  appreciation  of  art  may  be  summarized  as  follows:  The 
most  systematic  instruction  to  teachers  is  being  given  in  Boston :  special 
written  aid  for  teachers  may  be  secured  at  the  Metropolitan  ^Museum  in 
New  York ;  the  best  work  in  co-operation  with  the  public  schools  is  being 
done  in  Toledo ;  the  largest  number  of  books  will  be  found  at  the  Metro- 
politan ]\Iuseum,  although  the  best  arranged  library  is  at  the  Art  Institute 
of  Chicago,  where  there  is  also  a  good  library  class  room ;  l>oth  Boston 
and  the  Metropolitan  have  class  rooms  equipped  with  lanterns,  for  the 
use  of  teachers  as  well  as  staff  lecturers.  The  popular  lecture  is  most 
successfully  carried  out  in  the  Siniday  series  in  Detroit ;  the  "docent" 
system  is  well  established  in  Boston  ;  the  circulation  in  the  public  schools 
of  photographs  of  paintings  m  the  local  museum  is  done  systematically 
only  in  Pittsburg.  The  largest  collection  of  photographs  for  reference 
is  in  Boston ;  the  best  series  of  inexpensive  reproductions  will  be  found 
at  the  Metropolitan  Museum  in  New  York.  The  largest  collection  of 
lantern  slides  is  at  Detroit;  these,  as  well  as  the  books  and  photographs, 
are  lent  to  schools  and  responsible  organizations.  The  Boston  ^luseum 
publishes  the  best  descriptive  handbook,  and  the  Pennsylvania  Museum 


4i8  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

issues  the  only  monographs.  Monthly  publications  are  issued  in  Buffalo, 
New  York,  and  Toledo ;  there  is  a  bi-monthly  in  Boston ;  and  quarterlies 
are  published  in  Chicago,  Detroit,  Brooklyn,  and  Philadelphia.  The  best 
method  of  labeling  will  be  found  in  Brooklyn ;  scrap  books  on  decorative 
art  are  the  feature  of  the  Cooper  Union  Museum  in  New  York ;  while  in 
Richmond,  Ind.,  it  is  the  vote  of  the  children  that  decides  the  purchase 
each  year  of  a  picture  from  the  current  exhibition. 

Too  much  stress  cannot  be  laid  on  the  necessity  for  the  training  of 
teachers  in  the  appreciation  of  art.  In  an  article  on  "The  Art  ^Museum 
and  the  Public  School"  in  the  "Art  Bulletin,"  Dr.  James  P.  Haney  states : 
"A  necessary  function  of  the  art  museum  is  the  interpretation  of  its 
material  to  those  who  wnW  become  interpreters.  The  museum  should,  in 
other  words,  teach  teachers,  that  they  may  teach  their  pupils.  With  the 
establishment  of  an  educational  department  the  value  to  the  community 
of  any  art  collection  increases  many  fold.  As  a  people  we  are  trying  to 
raise  our  standards  of  taste.  The  art  museum  is,  of  all  agents,  the  one 
which  best  aids  to  this  end,  but  training  must  be  given  in  an  active,  not  a 
passive    way." 

As  far  back  as  February  28,  1889,  George  Brown  Goode,  in  a 
lecture  before  the  Brooklyn  Institute  of  Arts  and  Sciences  on  "The 
]\Iuseum  of  the  Future,"  predicted  that  by  19 14  the  United  States  would 
take  the  lead  in  the  popularizing  of  art  museums.  He  reasoned  that  the 
first  great  exposition  was  held  in  London  in  185 1,  and  that  in  thirty- 
eight  years  the  South  Kensington  ISIuseum  had  reached  its  wonderful 
development.  Taking,  therefore,  the  first  exposition  in  this  country,  the 
Centennial  in  Philadelphia  in  1876,  he  allowed  the  same  number  of  years 
for  our  development  along  these  lines.  As  long  as  people  do  not  know  the 
attractive  qualities  that  come  from  the  appreciation  of  art,  there  will  be 
no  demand  for  artistic  productions,  but  when  their  eyes  have  been  opened 
by  the  wonders  of  a  "World's  Fair,"  or  even  a  "Loan  Collection,"  then 
the  demand  is  created. 

The  following  is  quoted  from  Mr.  Goode's  address :  "In  this  busy  age 
each  man  is  seeking  to  know  all  things ;  life  is  too  short  for  many  words. 
The  eye  is  used  more  and  more,  descriptive  writing  is  set  aside  for  pic- 
tures, and  i)ictures  are  rejDlaced  by  actual  objects.  The  lecturer  uses  a 
stereopticon  to  re-enforce  his  words,  the  editor  illustrates  his  journal,  the 
merchant  and  manufacturer  recommend  their  wares  by  vivid  posters.  *  *  * 


EDUCATIONAL  WORK  OF  ART  MUSEUMS.  4i9 

"Amid  such  tendencies  the  museum  should  be  the  most  powerful 
and  useful  auxiliary.  The  museum  of  the  past  must  be  transformed 
from  a  cemetery  of  bric-a-brac  into  a  nursery  of  living  thought.  The 
museum  of  the  future  must  stand  side  by  side  \\\Xh  the  library  and  the 
laboratory  as  a  part  of  the  teaching  equipment  of  the  college  and  uni- 
versity, and  co-operate  with  the  public  library  as  one  of  the  principal 
agencies  for  the  enlightenment  of  the  people." 


APPLICATION'    OF   BUTTERFLY    MOTIF.    NORMAL   CLASS, 
SCHOOL   OF    DESIGX    FOR    WOMEN,    PHILADELPHIA,    PA. 


EXTENT  AND  COST  OF  ART  INSTRUCTION  IN  THE 
PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 

By  George  H.  Marti  x. 

From  Statistics  Gathered  by  the  Bureau  of  Education, 
Washington,  D.  C. 

T^  HE  purpose  of  this  chapter  is  to  show  by  means  of  statistics  what 
*  progress  has  been  made  in  the  United  States  in  the  development  of 
art  instruction,  using  the  term  in  the  broadest  sense  as  inchiding  not  only 
drawing,  but  manual  work  of  all  kinds,  whether  called  handicraft,  manual 
training  or  technical  instruction. 

The  standing  acquired  by  special  instruction  is  determined  by  several 
elements : 

1.  The  extent  to  which  it  is  required. 

2.  The  number  of  students  drawn  to  it  when  it  is  elective. 

3.  The  provisions  for  its  direction  and  supervision. 

4.  The  aids  furnished  supplementar}-  to  instruction  as  by  libraries 
and  museums. 

5.  The  expenditures  for  it. 

DRAWING  IN   ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  education  as  such  is  not  among  the 
functions  of  the  United  States  Government,  and  the  State  governments 
vary  very  greatly  as  to  the  details  of  their  requirements.  Large  freedom  is 
allowed  to  municipalities  in  the  scope  of  the  education  which  they  furnish. 
The  true  measure  of  public  sentiment  in  favor  of  any  branch  of  instruc- 
tion is,  therefore,  the  extent  to  which  cities  have  introduced  it  and  the 
liberality  with  which  they  have  supported  it. 

Drawing  is  required  to  be  taught  in  all  the  elementar>'  schools  of  only 


422  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

the  following  twelve  States:  Arizona,  California,  Indiana,  Louisiana, 
Maryland,  Massachusetts,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  South  Dakota, 
Utah,  Vermont  and  Virginia.  But  in  a  large  proportion  of  the  cities,  in 
every  State,  drawing  is  required  to  be  taught  to  all  the  pupils. 

There  are  in  the  United  States  1,325  cities  of  four  thousand  popula- 
tion and  over.  Reports  have  been  received  from  996  of  these  cities,  and 
in  933,  or  93.6  per  cent.,  of  these,  drawing  is  a  required  subject  in  the 
elementary  schools.  In  701  of  these  cities  a  special  supervisor  or  director 
of  drawing  is  employed  at  an  average  salary  of  $768.  The  aggregate 
expenditure  for  drawing  supplies  in  710  of  these  cities  reporting  is 
$264,734. 

HANDICRAFT  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 

The  progress  of  art  instruction  is  shown  by  the  extent  to  which  the 
elementary  drawing  has  become  fused  into  what  may  be  called  handicraft 
instruction,  of  which  drawing  is  the  foundation  and  constructive  work 
the  practical  application.  In  253  cities  handicraft  is  required  in  all  the 
grades,  and  in  some  of  the  grades  in  a  large  number  of  other  cities.  A 
special  supervisor  or  director  of  handicraft  in  361  cities  is  employed  at  an 
average  salary  of  $953.  The  cost  of  handicraft  material  in  430  cities  re- 
porting is  $226,649. 

DRAWING    AND    HANDICRAFT    IN    HIGH    SCHOOLS. 

Of  the  free  public  high  schools  reporting,  drawing  is  required  in 
280,  and  it  is  elective  in  356. 

The  number  of  students  in  these  schools  taking  free-hand  drawing 
is  68,088;  the  number  taking  mechanical  drawing  is  24,911. 

Handicraft  is  reported  as  practiced  in  290  high  schools.  A  part  of 
the  salary  paid  to  supervisors  of  handicraft,  as  reported  under  elementary 
schools,  should  doubtless  be  charged  to  the  high  schools,  as  the  same 
person  usually  supervises  the  work  in  all  the  schools  of  the  city. 

The  expenditure  for  materials  for  drawing  and  handicraft  in  the 
high  schools  is  reported  for  346  high  schools  at  $72,314. 

An  expenditure  of  $192,347  for  art  reference  material  is  reported  by 
293  cities. 


Al'PLICATION    OF   BUTTERFLY    MOTIF  TO  VARIOUS    MATERIALS,    NORMAL   CLASS.    SCHOOL 
OF   DESIGN    FOR   WOMEN,    PHILADELPHIA,   PA. 


STATISTICS. 


435 


INSTRUCTION  IN  MANUAL  ARTS,  INCLUDING  DRAWING,  ABOVE  THE 
ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 

Art  instruction  is  largely  elective  on  reaching  the  secondary  and  col- 
legiate instruction.  That  it  is  widespread  is  shown  by  the  following  fig- 
ures furnished  by  institutions  in  every  State  except  Nevada.  Had  all 
institutions  of  all  grades  reported,  the  figures  would  have  been  greatly  in 
excess  of  those  that  have  been  furnished: 


Institutions. 


No.  of 
students  in 
manual  arts. 


Public  High  Schools 173.981 

Private  High  Schools 21,827 

Manual  Training  Schools 61.249 

Normal  Schools   31.678 

Universities,   Colleges,   and   Technolog- 
ical Schools   26,768 

Totals    315.503 


Cost   of 

plants  for 

manual  arts. 

$1,346,371 

216.743 

8,722.772 

313.459 
6,599.478 

$17,198,823 


Total  annual 

exi>endtturcs 

fur  manual 

arts. 

$772,225 
121,781 

1,219,107 
195.395 

1,192410 
$3,500,919 


The  significance  of  the  above  figures,  showing  the  number  of 
students  in  manual  arts,  is  shown  by  comparing  them  with  the  whole 
number  receiving  literary  instruction  in  the  same  institutions,  which  is 
reported  as  follows: 

Number  of 

students 

receiving 

literary 

Institutions.  instructio... 

Public  High    Schools 299.589 

Private   High    Schools 32.305 

Manual  Training  Schools 47.030 

Normal  Scliools    46.578 

Universities,  Colleges,  and    Technological  Schools 94.672 


Totals 


521.000 


It  would  appear  from  these  figures  that,  if  521,000  represents  the  en- 
tire number  of  students  receiving  literary  instruction  in  the  institutions 
reporting,  315.503.  or  about  60  per  cent.,  are  receiving  as  a  part  of  their 
education  art  instruction  in  some  form. 


426  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

PROVISIONS    FOR    SUPERVISION    AND    INSTRUCTION. 

Besides  the  supervisors  employed  in  cities,  two  States,  Massachusetts 
and  New  York,  employ  a  State  agent  or  director  for  the  promotion  of 
drawing  and  the  manual  arts. 

The  future  of  art  instruction  is  rendered  most  promising  by  the  fact 
that  teachers  in  training  in  the  normal  schools  of  thirty-eight  of  the  forty- 
six  States  are  pursuing  courses  in  drawing  or  manual  training  or  both. 

In  the  reformatories  of  California,  Colorado,  Indiana,  Iowa,  Kan- 
sas, Maryland,  Massachusetts,  Minnesota,  jMissouri,  New  York,  Ohio,. 
Pennsylvania,  Utah,  Virginia  and  Wisconsin  manual  arts  instruction 
under  special  teachers  forms  a  part  of  the  curriculum,  and  is  relied  on  as 
the  most  useful  means  of  developing  both  character  and  ability. 

ART   LIBRARIES  AND   MUSEUMS. 

The  development  of  these  adjuncts  of  instruction  in  connection  with 
institutions  of  learning  is  yet  in  its  infancy,  but  that  a  good  beginnings 
has  been  made  is  shown  by  the  following  figures : 

, Libraries. ^  , Museums. > 

Number  Number  Aggregate 

Institutions.                                                   reporting.  Volumes.  reporting.  value. 

Public  High   Schools 122  11,723                 128  $26,695. 

Private   High    Schools 40  5,156                 62  48,345 

Manual   Training   Schools 40  122,985                  26  118,430 

Normal  Schools   42  8,516                 41  I5,445 

Universities,   Colleges,   and  Techno- 
logical  Schools   51  154,311                   47  65,885 

Totals    295  302,691  304  $274,800- 

SCHOOL  ROOM   DECORATION. 

Of  all  the  changes  which  recent  years  have  wrought  in  public  school 
life  and  work,  none  is  more  striking,  perhaps  none  more  significant,  than 
the  change  in  the  appearance  of  the  school  rooms.  Cold,  bare  and  re- 
pelling walls,  which  were  once  universal,  are  now  rarely  found.  Even 
the  humblest  rooms  show  some  attempts  at  decoration,  and  many  build- 
ings are  so  adorned  with  casts  and  pictures  as  to  minister  silently  and 
powerfully  to  that  appreciation  of  the  beautiful,  which  is  one  of  the  chief 
ends  of  art  instruction. 


STATISTICS.  427 

The  most  interesting  fact  about  this  matter  is  that  for  the  most  part 
the  money  expended  for  decoration  has  been  earned  by  the  pupils  them- 
selves by  means  of  musical  or  literary  entertainments,  or  has  been  given 
by  graduating  classes  as  a  token  of  their  appreciation  of  school  oppor- 
tunities. 

The  figures  presented  by  the  following  table  "are  fragmentary  even 
for  the  classes  of  institutions  reporting,  and  do  not  include  the  elementary 
school  rooms,  where  probably  the  expenditure  is  more  than  in  all  the 
higher  institutions : 

Number  Aggregate 

^             .                                                                                                        reporting  value  of  such 

Institutions.                                                                                               decorations.  decorations. 

Public  High   Schools 420  $123,129 

Private  High  Schools 87  30,277 

Manual  Training  Schools 37  17,805 

Normal  Schools   51  23,750 

Universities,  Colleges,  and  Technological  Schools 43  30,755 

Totals    638  $225,716 

The  statistics  presented  here  are  necessarily  incomplete.  They 
measure  only  in  part  the  interest  felt  in  the  subject  of  art  instruction. 
But  it  should  be  noticed  that  they  represent  not  a  government  interest,  but 
a  popular  interest,  because  every  dollar  expended,  except  a  small  amount 
received  for  endowments  in  higher  institutions,  has  come  directly  from 
the  pockets  of  the  people  through  voluntary  public  taxation. 

Among  the  inquiries  made  of  the  cities  was  the  following:  "Is  in- 
terest in  manual  arts  education  increasing?"  Of  the  933  towns  respond- 
ing, 729  answered  this  question  in  the  affirmative. 

It  would  seem  reasonable  to  expect,  therefore,  that  when  the  next 
International  Congress  meets,  the  United  States  will  report  more  students 
under  art  instruction  and  a  still  more  generous  expenditure  of  public 
funds  for  the  purpose. 


POTTERYj    NEWCOMB    COLLEGE,    NEW    ORLEANS,    LA. 


BIOGRAPHICAL  NOTES  OF  CONTRIBUTORS. 

Earl  Barnes.— Born  Oswego,  N.  Y.  Educated  in  the  Oswego  Normal  School; 
Corneli  University,  A.  B.,  M.  S. ;  one  year  at  Zurich,  Switzerland.  Taught  all  grades 
of  the  lower  schools;  European  history,  Indiana  University  1889-1891 ;  Profes.^or 
of  Education,  Stanford  University,  1891-1897.  Author  of  "Studies  in  Education" 
(First  Series  1896-9,  Second  Series  1902);  "Where  Knowledge  Fails";  contributor 
to  "Pedagogical  Seminary"  and  to  the  proceedings  of  the  National  Education  Asso- 
ciation.    Lecturer  on  educational  subjects. 

Cheshire  Lowton  Boone. — Born  Rich  Square,  Indiana.  Educated  in  the  public 
schools  of  Frankfort  and  Bloomington,  Ind. ;  Michigan  State  Normal  College,  Ypsi- 
lanti,  Mich.,  1893-4;  Michigan  University,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich.,  1895-0;  Teachers  Col- 
lege, New  York  City,  1898-1900.  Architectural  draftsman  in  Detroit,  Mich.,  1897-8; 
teacher  of  clay  modeling,  Montclair,  N.  J.,  1900;  Supervisor  of  primary  drawing 
and  manual  training,  Montclair,  N.  J.,  1905 ;  Director  of  art  and  handwork,  Mont- 
clair, N.  J.,  1906;  Director  of  drawing  and  manual  training.  State  Normal  School, 
Montclair,  N.  J.,  1908.  Member  Council  of  Supervisors  of  Manual  Arts;  School 
Crafts  Club  of  New  York ;  Eastern  An  Teachers  Association ;  Eastern  Manual 
Training  Association ;  National  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Industrial  Education. 
Contributor  to  various  educational  magazines  and  to  the  "Year  Book"  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Supervisors  of  Manual  Arts. 

Jeannette  Buckley.— Bom  Toledo,  Ohio.  Educated  in  the  grammar  and  high 
school  of  Chicago,  111.;  Art  In.stitute  of  Chicago.  Instructor  at  private  schools  in 
Chicago;  Principal  of  Normal  Department,  Art  Institute  of  Chicago.  Member  Chi- 
cago Society  of  Artists. 

Frederic  Lynden  Burnham. — Born  Taunton.  Mass.  Educated  in  the  public 
schools  of  Taunton;  private  schools  in  West  Virginia  and  Texas;  Massachusetts 
Normal  Art  School,  Boston;  Art  School  of  Yak  University.  New  Haven.  Conn. 
Teacher  of  drawing,  Taunton  night  schools ;  Supervisor  of  drawing.  North  Adams. 
Mass.,  1896-9;  Supervisor  of  drawing.  New  Haven.  Conn..  1899- 1903:  Supervisor 
of  drawing.  Providence,  R.  I.,  1903-5 ;  Agent  for  the  promotion  of  the  manual  arts 
in  the  State  of  Massachusetts  since  1906;  member  of  the  faculty  and  instructor  in 
summer  courses,  Hyannis  Normal  School,  Hyannis,  Mass.  Member  New  Haven 
Paint  and  Clay  Club;  Barnard  Club.  Providence;  Whittemore  Club.  Boston;  Con- 
necticut State  Teachers'  Association;  Providence  Teachers'  Association;  Rhode 
Island  Institute  of  Instruction;  New  England  Superintendents'  Association;  Coun- 
cil of  Supervisors  of  the  Manual  .\rts;  Eastern  Art  Teachers   Association;  Massa- 


430  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE   UNITED  STATES. 

chusetts  Normal  Art  School  Alumni  Association.  Painter.  Contributor  to  the 
"Year  Book"  of  the  Council  of  Supervisors  of  the  Manual  Arts  and  to  educational 
magazines. 

Charles  Milton  Carter. — Born  North  Brookfield,  Mass.  Educated  in  public 
schools  and  Polytechnic  School  at  Worcester,  Mass. ;  Massachusetts  State  Normal 
Art  School,  Boston.  Instructor  at  Massachusetts  Normal  Art  School,  Boston ;  State 
Supervisor  of  drawing,  Massachusetts;  Agent  of  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of 
Education  for  the  Promotion  of  Industrial  Drawing;  Principal  evening  industrial 
art  school,  Boston ;  Director  of  drawing,  Quincy,  Mass. ;  Director  of  drawing, 
Denver,  Colo.  Member  of  Eastern  Drawing  Teachers  Association ;  Western  Draw- 
ing and  Manual  Training  Association ;  Colorado  State  Teachers'  Association ;  Den- 
ver Artists'  Club;  International  Jury  of  Awards,  Department  of  Art  Education, 
St.  Louis  Exposition;  President  of  Honor  for  the  United  States  at  the  First  Inter- 
national Congress  for  the  Development  of  Drawing,  Paris,  1900.  Author  of  "Some 
European  Industrial  Art  Schools" ;  contributor  to  various  educational  magazines. 
Portrait  and  landscape  painter. 

Julia  Cecilia  Cremins. — Born  New  York  City.  Graduated  from  Normal  Col- 
lege, New  York  City;  student  at  Artist  Artisan  Institute;  School  of  Applied  Design 
for  Women ;  Art  Students'  League ;  New  York  School  of  Art ;  New  York  Uni- 
versity; Columbia  University  Summer  School;  Harvard  University  Summer  School. 
Assistant  to  Director  of  art  and  manual  training.  Boroughs  of  Manhattan  and  the 
Bronx,  New  York,  N.  Y.,  1897-1908.  Member  of  Eastern  Art  Teachers  Associa- 
tion ;  Teachers'  Art  Club  of  New  York ;  Council  of  Supervisors  of  the  Manual  Arts. 
Lecturer  at  New  York  University;  contributor  to  the  "'Year  Book"  of  the  Council 
of  Supervisors  of  the  Manual  Arts. 

James  Parton  Haney. — Born  New  York  City.  Graduated  College  of  the  City 
of  New  York,  B.  S.,  1888;  graduated  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  Colum- 
bia University,  M.  D.,  1892 ;  student  at  Art  Students'  League ;  Artist  Artisan  Insti- 
tute ;  New  York  School  of  Art.  Teacher  of  manual  arts  Public  Schools,  New  York, 
N.  Y.,  1888-91;  practiced  medicine,  1892-94;  lecturer  New  York  University,  School 
of  Pedagogy,  1895-99  and  1906-08 ;  since  September,  1896,  Director  of  Art  and  Man- 
ual Training  in  the  Public  Schools  of  New  York  City,  Boroughs  of  Manhattan  and 
the  Bronx.  Member  National  Education  Association ;  Council  of  Supervisors  of 
the  Manual  Arts  (President,  1901-4)  ;  Eastern  Art  Teachers  Association;  Eastern 
Manual  Training  Association;  Public  Education  Association  of  New  York  City 
(Advisory  Board)  ;  National  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Industrial  Education 
(Secretary)  ;  School  Crafts  Club  (President,  1901)  ;  Municipal  Art  Society  of  New 
York;  Salmagundi  Club;  Graduates'  Club;  Teachers'  Art  Club  (President).  Some- 
time associate  editor  "Manual  Training  Magazine";  contributor  to  magazines  on 
topics  dealing  with  medical  aspects  of  teaching,  industrial  education,  and  manual 
arts ;  lecturer  on  manual,  art,  and  industrial  topics. 


BIOGRAPHICAL  SOTES.  431 

James  Frederick  Hopkins.— Born  Newton,  Mass.  Educated  in  public  schools 
and  high  school,  Newton,  Mass. ;  Massachusetts  Normal  Art  School,  Boston.  Mass. 
Teacher  in  evening  drawing  schools,  Newton,  Mass.,  1888;  Art  Department,  Pratt 
Institute,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  1889-96;  Director  of  drawing.  Boston  public  schools. 
1896;  Director,  School  of  Art  and  Design,  Maryland  Institute,  Baltimore,  since 
1906.  Lecturer,  Brooklyn  Institute  of  Arts  and  Sciences ;  Art  School  of  Yale  Uni- 
versity, 1904.  Special  investigation  of  European  industrial  and  applied  art  schools 
for  Committee  on  Drawing,  Boston  public  schools,  1903.  Member  Massachusetts 
Normal  Art  School  Alumnae  Association ;  Eastern  Art  Teachers  Association ;  Brook- 
lyn Institute  of  Arts  and  Sciences;  Society  of  Arts  and  Crafts,  Boston;  Boston 
Art  Club;  University  Club,  Baltimore;  Educational  Society,  Baltimore.  Author  of 
"Outlines  of  Lessons  in  Drawing";  contributor  to  educational  programs  and  maga- 
zines. 


Florence  Nightingale  Levy.— Born  New  York  City.  Educated  at  private 
school  in  New  York;  National  Academy  of  Design;  Teachers  College,  New  York; 
student  at  the  Louvre,  Paris,  under  George  Lafenestre.  Assistant,  art  department 
Pan-American  Exposition,  BuflFalo,  190 1 ;  editor  weekly  "Art  Bulletin,"  1901-1907; 
editor  "American  Art  Annual,"  since  1898.  Contributor  to  magazines;  lecturer  on 
art.  Member  National  Arts  Club;  Municipal  Art  Society  of  New  York;  National 
Society  of  Craftsmen;  Public  Education  Association  of  New  York  (Chairman  Art 
Committee)  ;  National  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Industrial  Education. 

Harriet  Cecil  Magee. — Born  Mashwaak,  N.  B.,  Canada.  Graduate  of  Provin- 
cial Normal  School,  Fredericton,  N.  B.,  and  of  Mount  Holjoke  College,  South  Had- 
ley,  Mass. ;  studio  work  in  Boston  and  New  York.  Taught  in  elementary  schools, 
Fredericton,  N.  B. ;  Acadia  Seminary,  Wolfville,  N.  S. ;  Warren  Academy,  Warren, 
Pa. ;  Director  of  art  education.  State  Normal  School,  Oshkosh,  Wis. ;  supervising 
teacher  of  drawing,  elementary  schools  of  Chicago.  Member  Western  Drawing 
Teachers'  Association  (President,  1895-96);  National  Education  Association;  Art 
and  Music  Committee  Religious  Education  Association;  Chicago  College  Club; 
Chicago  Teachers'  Manual  and  Art  Association. 


George  Henry  Martin. — Born  Lynn,  Mass.  Graduate  of  Lynn  High  School; 
Bridgewater  State  Normal  School.  Teacher  in  Bridgewater  State  Normal  School, 
1864-82;  Agent  Massachusetts  Board  of  Education.  1882-92;  Supervisor  Public 
Schools  of  Boston.  1892- 1904;  Secretary  Massachusetts  Board  of  Education  since 
1904.  Member  National  Education  Association ;  American  Institute  of  Instruction ; 
National  Council  of  Education;  Massachusetts  Council  of  Education  (President); 
American  Association  of  School  Hygiene.  Honorary  degrees  of  .•\.  M..  Amherst 
College.  1879;  Litt.  D..  Tufts  College,  1905.  Author  of  "English  Language."  "Evo- 
lution of  the  Massachusetts  Public  School  System,"  "Hints  on  Teaching  Civics." 


432  ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Colin  Alexander  Scott. — Born  near  Ottawa,  Canada.  Educated  in  the  public 
schools  of  New  York  City  and  in  the  College  of  the  City  of  New  York ;  completed 
work  for  a  degree  at  Queen's  University,  1886;  student  at  Ottawa  Art  School, 
1889-92.  Supervisor  of  drawing,  City  of  Kingston,  Canada;  Science  Master,  Ottawa 
Collegiate  Institute,  1887-95;  Fellow  in  Psychology,  Clark  University,  1895-7  (Ph.  D., 
1897)  ;  head  of  department  of  psychology,  Chicago  Normal  School,  1897-1901 ; 
Colorado  Normal  School,  Greeley,  Colo.,  1902 ;  Miami  University.  Oxford,  Ohio, 
1902-3;  head  of  department  of  psychology,  Boston  Normal  School,  1903-8. 

WiLLi.vM  Woodward. — Born  Seekcnk,  Mass.  Pupil  of  Rhode  Island  School  of 
Design,  Providence ;  graduate  Massachusetts  Normal  Art  School,  Boston ;  pupil  of 
Boulanger  a'->d  Lefebvre.  Paris,  1886.  Instructor  Rhode  Island  School  of  Design, 
Providence,  1884;  teacher  of  drawing  Tulane  University,  New  Orleans. 
1884-94;  Tulane  Free  Drawing  School.  1885-94;  Art  Department,  New- 
comb  College,  New  Orleans,  1887-88;  Professor  of  architecture,  Tulane  University, 
1894-1900;  drawing  and  painting,  1901-07;  head  of  department  of  architecture, 
Tulane  University,  since  1907.  Corresponding  member  American  Institute  of  Archi- 
tects;  member  Louisiana  Art  Teachers'  Association  (President);  Art  Association 
of  New  Orleans;  Louisiana  State  Public  School  Teachers'  Association;  Eastern 
Art  Teachers  Association ;  Western  Drawing  and  Manual  Training  Association. 
Contributor  to  educational  magazines. 


353 
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